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RUPERT SHELDRAKE
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Çeviri tarafından desteklenmektedir
ALL SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
Rupert Sheldrake is a biologist and author of more than 85 scientific papers and
13 books. Below are listed all of his scientific papers, with abstracts and
links to full-text where available.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON MORPHIC RESONANCE
Show All Abstracts Hide
PDF
THE HILL EFFECT AS A TEST FOR MORPHIC RESONANCE
Published online: April 8, 2021
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Plant and animal cells can be grown outside the organism they come from, and
some can be propagated in cell cultures within laboratory glassware for years.
Through morphic resonance, if some cells from the culture adapt to a new
challenge, similar cells should be able to adapt to the same challenge more
rapidly even when they are separated.
PDF
CAN MORPHIC FIELDS HELP EXPLAIN TELEPATHY AND THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT?
Mindfield Bulletin, (2019), Volume 11 Issue 1, 26-33
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The morphic field hypothesis proposes that minds are systems of fields that are
located inside brains but also extend far beyond them, just as the fields of
magnets are both within magnets and extend invisibly beyond them. Morphic fields
contain attractors (goals) and chreodes (habitual pathways towards those goals)
that guide a system toward its end state. They effect all self-organizing
systems, and systems within systems, in a nested hierarchy or holarchy of
morphic units. Morphic fields of social groups may help to coordinate flocks of
birds and schools of fish, which can rapidly change direction without
individuals colliding.
In this paper I discuss the sense of being stared at and telepathy as natural
consequences of the hypothesis of morphic fields. Although this hypothesis could
perhaps account for clairvoyance, psychokinesis, and precognition, it only does
so through chains of additional hypotheses, whereas possible explanations for
the sense of being stared at and telepathy emerge naturally and directly from
this hypothesis. I also differentiate this hypothesis from other explanatory
models of psi and discuss its application to non-psi phenomena, like protein
folding, inheritance, collective memory, learning, and navigation in animals.
PDF
MORPHIC FIELDS
World Futures, The Journal of New Paradigm Research, (2006), 62(1-2), 31-41
https://doi.org/10.1080/02604020500406248
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Ervin Laszlo's concept of the Akashic Field includes the idea of a cosmic
memory. This field is a universal field, and Laszlo's (2004) Laszlo, E. 2004.
Science and the Akashic Field, Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International.
[Google Scholar] scientific starting point is the physics of the vacuum
underlying space itself. A similar idea of a memory in nature arises from the
hypothesis of formative causation, with its central concept of morphic fields.
This hypothesis arose from biology rather than physics. Morphic fields help to
explain embryology, biological development, habits, memories, instincts,
telepathy, and the sense of direction. They have an inherent memory. In its most
general form this hypothesis implies that many of the so-called laws of nature
are more like habits.
Full Text PDF
PRAYER: A CHALLENGE FOR SCIENCE
Noetic Sciences Review, (Summer 1994), 30, 4-9
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Since ancient times, a strong and pervasive belief in the efficacy of prayer–for
the living and the dead–reinforces the notion that consciousness is not limited
to the physical body. Not only do traditions throughout the world share a belief
that prayers may in some way help (or invoke help from) deceased ancestors, many
cultures throughout history have believed that prayer can bring about changes in
the physical circumstances of the living.
Full Text PDF
AN EXPERIMENTAL TEST OF THE HYPOTHESIS OF FORMATIVE CAUSATION
Rivista di Biologia - Biology Forum, 85, (3/4) 431-443 (1992)
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The hypothesis of formative causation predicts that as animals of a given
species learn a new pattern of behaviour, other similar animals will
subsequently tend to learn the same thing more readily all over the world, a a
result of a process called morphic resonance. The more that learn it, the easier
it should become for others. This possibility was tested with day-old chicks
using a simple learned response, a conditioned aversion. The test took place in
the laboratory of Steven Rose, a sceptic, following a standard procedure used
routinely in his laboratory, and was carried out blind by a summer student who
knew nothing of the purpose of the experiment nor of morphic resonance. The
chicks were exposed either to a test stimulus, a small yellow light-emitting
diode (LED), or a control stimulus, a chrome bead. Half an hour after pecking
the stimulus, the control chicks received an injection of saline solution, and
the test chicks an injection of lithium chloride, which made them mildly sick.
They were then tested three hours later, each chick being exposed sequentially
to the control and the test stimulus, when most test birds were averse to
pecking the yellow LED, but not averse to pecking the control bead. The response
of the chicks was measured by recording the latency, the time delay in seconds
before they first pecked the stimulus. The same experimental procedure was
repeated for 37 days. If morphic resonance were occurring, successive batches of
chicks should have shown an increasing aversion to the yellow LED, even in the
initial training procedure, by morphic resonance from their averse predecessors.
The controls should have shown no such increasing aversion. I think the results
are consistent with such an effect, which shows up with a high degree of
statistical significance (p < 0.01) when the aversion to the yellow bead is
measured relative to the control. Rose disagrees with this interpretation.
Full Text
ROSE REFUTED
Rivista di Biologia - Biology Forum 85 (3/4), 455-460, (1992)
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Rose's predictions about the outcome of this experiment were refuted by the
empirical data. His aggressive tone and extravagant rhetoric conceal this simple
fact. I will not attempt to answer his polemic, ranging from Nietzsche to
ley-lines, but simply start by looking again at his predictions about the
chicks: "No secular trends apparent; latencies to peck the illuminated bead
after ten weeks are no different from those on week I, and the differences
between latencies for illuminated and chrome beads, if they occur, are also
unchanged". In fact secular trends were very apparent, latencies to peck the
illuminated bead after ten weeks were very different from those on week I, and
the differences between latencies for illuminated and chrome beads were not
unchanged. Rose and I discussed various interpretations of the data over a
period of eighteen months. At the outset, he seemed certain that the hypothesis
of formative causation would be disconfirmed. He had already publicly denounced
it in the strongest terms. He appeared to have no doubt that when tested in his
own laboratory, under his own supervision, in my absence, by an experimenter
working blind, the data would reveal no trace whatever of morphic resonance. But
it soon became clear that there had been an effect of the kind predicted by the
hypothesis of formative causation. (I discuss below Rose's alternative
interpretation of this effect in terms of "floors" and "ceilings"). After
lengthy delays, Rose withdrew from our agreement to write a joint paper, and no
longer wanted to publish the results.
Full Text PDF
CATTLE FOOLED BY PHONEY GRIDS
New Scientist (1988 ) Feb 11, 85
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Ranchers throughout the American West have found that they can save money on
cattle grids by using fake grids instead, consisting of stripes painted across
the road. Real cattle grids, usually made of a series of parallel steel tubes or
rails with gaps in between, which make it physically impossible for cattle to
walk across them. However, cattle do not usually try to cross them; they avoid
them. The illusory grids work just like real ones. When cattle approach them,
they "put on brakes with all four feet", as one rancher expressed it to me.
Full Text PDF
MIND, MEMORY, AND ARCHETYPE MORPHIC RESONANCE AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS -
PART I
Psychological Perspectives (Spring 1987), 18(1),9-25
https://doi.org/10.1080/00332928708408747
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
In this essay, I am going to discuss the concept of collective memory as a
background for understanding Jung's concept of the collective unconscious. The
collective unconscious only makes sense in the context of some notion of
collective memory. This then takes us into a very wide-ranging examination of
the nature and principle of memory-not just in human beings and not just in the
animal kingdom; not even just in the realm of life-but in the universe as a
whole. Such an encompassing perspective is part of a very profound paradigm
shift that is taking place in science: the shift from the mechanistic to an
evolutionary and wholistic world view.
Full Text PDF
SOCIETY, SPIRIT & RITUAL: MORPHIC RESONANCE AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS -
PART II
Psychological Perspectives (Fall 1987), 18(2), 320-331
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00332928708410861
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The approach I am putting forward is very similar to Jung's idea of the
collective unconscious. The main difference is that Jung's idea was applied
primarily to human experience and human collective memory. What 1 am suggesting
is that a very similar principle operates throughout the entire universe, not
just in human beings. If the kind of radical paradigm shift 1 am talking about
goes on within biology ? if the hypothesis of morphic resonance is even
approximately correct ? then Jung's idea of the collective unconscious would
become a mainstream idea: Morphogenic fields and the concept of the collective
unconscious would completely change the context of modern psychology.
Full Text PDF
EXTENDED MIND, POWER, & PRAYER: MORPHIC RESONANCE AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS
- PART III
Psychological Perspectives (Spring 1988), 19(1) 64-78
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00332928808408771
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
This is the third in our series of essays by Rupert Sheldrake on the
implications of his hypothesis of Formative Causation for the psychology of C.
G. Jung. The intense controversy this hypothesis generated with the publication
of his first book, A New Science of Life (1981), has stimulated a number of
international competitions for evaluating his ideas via experimental
investigations.
RELATED RESEARCH BY OTHERS
Full Text
SO-CALLED "FORMATIVE CAUSATION" - A HYPOTHESIS DISCONFIRMED
Response to Rupert Sheldrake
Rivista di Biologia - Biology Forum 85 (3/4), 445-453, (1992)
by Steven Rose
Abstract
Sheldrake's paper claims that the results of the experiment which we jointly
planned, and which was conducted by myself and Ms Harrison, are in conformity
with the hypothesis he describes as "formative causation". Before demonstrating
that Sheldrake's interpretation of these results is invalid, and that they by no
means confirm his hypothesis, I wish to comment briefly on the background to the
experiment. His book A New Science of Life seemed when I first read it, and
still seems, to propose an entirely empty hypothesis. The circumstances in which
novel hypotheses (paradigms) become important in science have been well
described by Thomas Kuhn; they emerge when there is an accumulation of
observational anomalies which existing hypotheses cannot account for, or when a
theory becomes excessively cumbersome and "inelegant" and the alternative seems
to handle the same material more coherently. To Kuhn's account we can, at least
in the particular context of the present discussion, add the well-worn view that
to have utility, a hypothesis should be capable of disconfirmation.
PDF
MORPHIC FIELDS AND EXTENDED MIND
Journal of Consciousness Studies, 18, No. 11–12, 2011, pp. 203–24
by Fraser Watts
Abstract
This paper examines the central theoretical concepts in the work of Rupert
Sheldrake. The first section examines Sheldrake’s account of morphic fields and
questions whether difficulties arise when these concepts are extended upwards
from the biological level. The second section reviews Sheldrake’s concept of
extended mind and considers the criticism that it is reductionist about
mentality. In considering both of these criticisms it is argued that Sheldrake’s
theories can be taken in a reductive direction, but need not be. The third and
final section draws on the work of Joseph Bracken and David Ray Griffin to
suggest a panpsychist metaphysics of field as one possible way that Sheldrake
could sidestep these dangers and strengthen his approach.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON ANIMAL POWERS
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Full Text PDF
LISTEN TO THE ANIMALS: WHY DID SO MANY ANIMALS ESCAPE DECEMBER'S TSUNAMI?
The Ecologist, March 2005
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Many animals escaped the great Asian tsunami on Boxing Day, 2004. Elephants in
Sri Lanka and Sumatra moved to high ground before the giant waves struck; they
did they same in Thailand, trumpeting before they did so. How did they know? The
usual speculation is that the animals picked up tremors caused by the under-sea
earthquake. This explanation seems to me unconvincing.
Full Text PDF
TESTING A LANGUAGE-USING PARROT FOR TELEPATHY
Journal of Scientific Exploration 17, pp. 601-615 (2003)
by Rupert Sheldrake and Aimee Morgana
Abstract
Aimée Morgana noticed that her language-using African Grey parrot, N'kisi, often
seemed to respond to her thoughts and intentions in a seemingly telepathic
manner. We set up a series of trials to test whether this apparent telepathic
ability would be expressed in formal tests in which Aimée and the parrot were in
different rooms, on different floors, under conditions in which the parrot could
receive no sensory information from Aimée or from anyone else.
During these trials Aimée and the parrot were both videotaped continuously. At
the beginning of each trial, Aimée opened a numbered sealed envelope containing
a photograph, and then looked at it for two minutes. These photographs
corresponded to a prespecified list of key words in N'kisi's vocabulary, and
were selected and randomized in advance by a third party. We conducted a total
of 149 two-minute trials. The recordings of N'kisi during these trials were
transcribed blind by three independent transcribers. Their transcripts were
generally in good agreement. Using a majority scoring method, in which at least
two of the three transcribers were in agreement, N'kisi said one or more of the
key words in 71 trials. He scored 23 hits: the key words he said corresponded to
the target pictures.
In a Randomized Permutation Analysis (RPA), there were as many or more hits than
N'kisi actually scored in only 5 out of 20,000 random permutations, giving a p
value of 5/20,000 or 0.00025. In a Bootstrap Resampling Analysis (BRA), only 4
out of 20,000 permutations equalled or exceeded N'kisi's actual score (p =
0.0002). Both by the RPA and BRA the mean number of hits expected by chance was
12, with a standard deviation of 3. N'kisi repeated key words more when they
were hits than when they were misses. These findings are consistent with the
hypothesis that N'kisi was reacting telepathically to Aimée's mental activity.
Full Text PDF
A video about Jaytee
A DOG THAT SEEMS TO KNOW WHEN HIS OWNER IS COMING HOME: VIDEOTAPED EXPERIMENTS
AND OBSERVATIONS
Journal of Scientific Exploration 14, 233-255 (2000)
by Rupert Sheldrake and Pamela Smart
Abstract
Many dog owners claim that their animals know when a member of the household is
about to come home, showing their anticipation by waiting at a door or window.
We have investigated such a dog, called Jaytee, in more than 100 videotaped
experiments. His owner, Pam Smart (PS) traveled at least 7 km away from home
while the place where the dog usually waited for her was filmed continuously.
The time-coded videotapes were scored "blind". In experiments in which PS
returned at randomly-selected times, Jaytee was at the window 4 per cent of the
time during the main period of her absence and 55 percent of the time when she
was returning (p<0.0001). Jaytee showed a similar pattern of behavior in
experiments conducted independently by Wiseman, Smith & Milton (1998). When PS
returned at non-routine times of her own choosing, Jaytee also spent very
significantly more time at the window when she was on her way home. His
anticipatory behaviour usually began shortly before she set off. Jaytee also
anticipated PS's return when he was left at PS's sister's house or alone in PS's
flat. In control experiments, when PS was not returning, Jaytee did not wait at
the window more and more as time went on. Possible explanations for Jaytee's
behavior are discussed. We conclude that the dog's anticipation may have
depended on a telepathic influence from his owner.
Full Text PDF
TESTING A RETURN-ANTICIPATING DOG, KANE
Anthrozooes, 13, 203-212 (2000)
https://doi.org/10.2752/089279300786999716
by Rupert Sheldrake and Pamela Smart
Abstract
Many dog owners claim that their animals know when a member of the household is
coming home, typically showing their anticipation by waiting at a door or
window. In previous trials with a dog called Jaytee, recorded on videotape, it
was found that he anticipated his owner's arrival more than ten minutes in
advance, even when she was returning in unfamiliar vehicles such as taxis, when
the people at home did not know when to expect her, and when she set off at
randomly-selected times. This paper describes the results of a pre-planned
series of ten videotaped trials with a dog called Kane, a Rhodesian ridgeback,
who was said to wait by a window while his owner was on the way home. The
window-area was filmed continuously while the dog's owner went to places more
than 8 km away and came home at a variety of non-routine times, some of which
were selected at random and communicated to her by a telephone pager. The
time-coded videotapes were scored blind by a third party. In nine out of ten
trials Kane spent most time at the window when his owner was on the way home. On
average he was at the window 26 percent of the time while she was returning, and
only one percent of the time throughout the rest of her absence. This difference
was highly significant statistically. Possible explanations for this behavior
are discussed.
Full Text PDF
THE 'PSYCHIC PET' PHENOMENON: CORRESPONDENCE
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 2000, 64, No 859
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
This is part of an exchange between Sheldrake and Wiseman. For the complete
picture see: Richard Wiseman's claim to have debunked "the psychic pet
phenomenon"
In the January issue of the Journal Richard Wiseman, Matthew Smith & Julie
Milton published a reply to my note (Sheldrake, 1999a) about their claim to have
refuted the "psychic pet" phenomenon. This claim was made in the British Journal
of Psychology (Wiseman, Smith & Milton, 1998) and widely publicized in the
media. It was repeated as recently as February 2 this year in a presentation
given by the first author at the Royal Institution entitled "Investigating the
Paranormal".
At my invitation, Wiseman and Smith carried out 4 videotaped experiments with a
dog called Jaytee, with whom I have carried out more than 100 videotaped
experiments (Sheldrake, 1999b). My experiments showed that Jaytee usually waited
by the window for a far higher proportion of the time when his owner was coming
home than when she was not. This occurred even when his owner, Pam Smart, came
at non-routine, randomly-selected times and travelled by unfamiliar vehicles
such as taxis. This pattern was already clearly apparent months before Wiseman
et al. carried out their tests.
In the 3 experiments that Wiseman and Smith carried out at Pam's parents' flat,
the pattern of results was very similar to my own. Their data show a large and
statistically significant effect: Jaytee spent a far higher proportion of time
at the window when Pam was on the way home than when she was not (Sheldrake,
1999a).
Full Text PDF
COMMENTARY ON A PAPER BY WISEMAN, SMITH AND MILTON : ON THE 'PSYCHIC PET'
PHENOMENON
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research 63, October 1999
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
This is part of an exchange between Sheldrake and Wiseman. For the complete
picture see: Richard Wiseman's claim to have debunked "the psychic pet
phenomenon"
In August 1998 the British Journal of Psychology published a paper entitled 'Can
animals detect when their owners are returning home? An experimental test of the
"psychic pet" phenomenon' by Richard Wiseman, Matthew Smith and Julie Milton.
This paper was widely publicized thanks to a media release issued by the Press
Office of the British Psychological Society. The sceptical tone of this
announcement, entitled 'Mystic dog fails to give scientists a lead', was
reflected in the ensuing newspaper reports: 'Pets have no sixth sense, say
scientists' (The Independent , Aug 21); '"Psychic" dog is no more than a
chancer' (The Times , Aug 21); 'Psychic pets are exposed as a myth' (The Daily
Telegraph , Aug 22). The wire services reported the story world-wide.
Together with Pamela Smart, I have carried out over 200 experiments with the dog
in question, called Jaytee. The four experiments that form the basis of the
paper by Wiseman and his colleagues were carried out at my invitation (and with
the loan of my video equipment). I would like to take this opportunity of
putting into context their paper and the publicity it excited.
Full Text PDF
A video about Jaytee
A DOG THAT SEEMS TO KNOW WHEN HIS OWNER IS RETURNING: PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research 62, 220-232 (1998)
by Rupert Sheldrake and Pamela Smart
Abstract
In 1991, Pamela Smart's (PS) parents first noticed that her dog, Jaytee, seemed
to anticipate her return, apparently waiting for her at the window, beginning
around the time she was setting off to come home. In May 1994, PS and her
parents began to keep notes on her journeys and Jaytee's reactions. In this
paper we describe the results of 96 such sets of observations made between May
1994 and February 1995, on which she went up to 51 kms away from home. Jaytee
reacted 10 minutes or more in advance of PS's return on 82 occasions, and showed
no anticipatory reaction on 14. There was a highly significant correlation
between the time at which the dog reacted and the time at which PS set off
homewards. Jaytee's reactions did not seem to be attenuated by PS's distance. In
some additional experiments, his reactions occurred on 4 out of 5 occasions when
PS travelled by unfamiliar means, for example in taxis. He also reacted on 4 out
of 4 occasions when she set off home at randomly selected times. In one of these
experiments, both Jaytee's reactions and PS's movements were recorded on
videotape, and showed that the dog reacted 11 seconds after PS was told to go
home at a randomly selected time previously unknown to her. The evidence
suggests that Jaytee's reactions depended on an influence from his owner
detected by the dog in a manner currently unknown to science.
Full Text PDF
PERCEPTIVE PETS: A SURVEY IN LONDON
Biology Forum 91, 57-74 (1998)
by Rupert Sheldrake, Catherine Lawlor and Jane Turney
Abstract
A survey was carried out by telephone in London to find out how any pet owners
had observed seemingly telepathic abilities in their pets. 52% of dog owners
claimed that their animals knew in advance when a member of the household was on
the way home, compared with 24% of cat owners. Of the animals that reacted, 21%
of dogs and 19% of cats were said to do so more than 10 minutes before the
person's return. 73% of dog owners and 52% of cat owners said their pets knew
when the owners were going out before they showed any signs of doing so. 43% of
dog owners and 41% of cat owners said their pets responded to their thoughts or
silent commands; and 57% of dog owners and 37% of cat owners said their pets
were sometimes telepathic with them. 46% of people with pets now and 37% of
people without pets now said that they had known pets in the past that were
telepathic. 39% of those with pets now and 38% of those currently without pets
said they themselves had had psychic experiences. But significantly fewer of
those who had never kept pets had had psychic experiences themselves. The
results of this survey are compared with two similar surveys in North-West
England and in California. The general pattern was remarkably similar in these
three very different locations, and shows that seemingly telepathic abilities in
pets are common. In all locations dogs were more responsive than cats to their
owners' thoughts and intentions. The potential for experimental investigations
of these abilities is discussed.
Full Text PDF
PERCEPTIVE PETS: A SURVEY OF NORTH-WEST CALIFORNIA
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research 62, 396-406 (July 1998)
by David Jay Brown and Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
A telephone survey of 200 households was carried out in North-West California to
find out how many pet owners claim to have observed seemingly psychic abilities
in their animals. 132 of the households surveyed had pets. 45% of dog owners
claimed their animal knew in advance when a member of the household was on the
way home, compared with 31% of cat owners, and around 20% of these animals were
said to react more than 10 minutes in advance. 65% of dog owners and 37% of cat
owners said their pets knew that they were going out before they showed any
physical signs of doing so. 46% of dog owners and 41% of cat owners said that
their pet responded to their thoughts or silent commands, and 42% of dog owners
and 34% of cat owners said that their pet was sometimes telepathic with them.
49% of pet owners and 31% of non-pet owners said that some of the animals that
they had known in the past were telepathic. Significantly more pet owners
claimed to have had psychic experiences themselves than non-pet owners, and a
significantly higher proportion of 'psychic' pet owners claimed that their pets
exhibited psychic powers than 'non-psychic' owners. These findings are in
general agreement with a previous survey in England. Some implications of these
results are discussed.
PDF
PERCEPTIVE PETS WITH PUZZLING POWERS: THREE SURVEYS
ISAZ The Newsletter No.15, l99E 1998
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Pet owners often comment on the perceptivenesso f their animals.F or example,
some cat owners say that their animals seem to know when they intend to take
them to the vet, and disappear, even when the person has tried to give the cat
no clue. And some dogs are said to know when their owners are about to return,
sometimes half an hour or more in advance, even when the person comes at an
unusual time or in an unfamiliar vehicle (Sheldrake,, t994). Many pet owners
ascribe such kinds of perceptivenesst o telepathyo r a mysterious 'sixth sense'.
Such phenomena have, so far, been neglected by biologists and psychologists. One
reason for this neglect may be the taboo, widespread among scientists, against
taking seemingly 'paranormal' phenomena seriously. Another may be the taboo
against taLing pets seriously (Serpell, 1986).
I and my colleagues have recently carried out three surveys to find out what
proportion of pet owners have experienced a perceptiveness in their pets that
might go beyond the known senses. We asked a series of questions, listed below,
in telephone interviews with people in randomly sampled households. The same
questionnaire was used in three separate surveys in widely different locations:
Ramsbottom, a small town near Manchester, England (Sheldrake and Smart, 1997);
Santa Cruz, a university and beach town in California, USA (Brown and Sheldrake,
1998); and London, England (SheldrakeL, awlor and Turney, 1998).
Of course, what people believe about their pets' abilities may not be true. But
it may not be false either. Only empirical investigations can shed further light
on these phenomena
Full Text PDF
PSYCHIC PETS: A SURVEY IN NORTH-WEST ENGLAND
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research 61, 1997
by Rupert Sheldrake and Pamela Smart
Abstract
A telephone survey was carried out in Greater Manchester to find out how many
pet owners had observed seemingly psychic abilities in their pets. 46% of dog
owners claimed their animals knew in advance when a member of the household was
on their way home, compared with 14% of cat owners. Most of these animals
reacted 5 minutes or less in advance, but a substantial proportion reacted 10
minutes or more in advance of the person's return. 69% of dog owners and 48% of
cat owners thought there pets knew when they were going out before they showed
any physical signs of doing so. 53% of dog owners and 33% of cat owners thought
their pet responded to their thoughts or silent commands; and similar
percentages thought their pet was sometimes telepathic with them. Just over half
of those who had kept pets in the past thought that some of these animals were
telepathic. More dog than cat owners claimed to have had psychic experiences
themselves, and a higher proportion of "psychic" pet owners claimed that their
pets exhibited psychic powers than "non-psychic" owners. The potential for
experimental investigations of the seemingly psychic powers of pets is
discussed.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON TELEPATHY
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PDF
AUTOMATED TESTS FOR TELEPHONE TELEPATHY USING MOBILE PHONES
Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing (2015), 11 No. 4, 310-319
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2015.04.001
by Rupert Sheldrake, PhD, Pamela Smart and Leonidas Avraamides
Abstract
Objective: To carry out automated experiments on mobile phones to test for
telepathy in connection with telephone calls.
Study Method: Subjects, aged from 10 to 83, registered online with the names and
mobile telephone numbers of three or two senders. A computer selected a sender
at random, and asked him to call the subject via the computer. The computer then
asked the subject to guess the caller's name, and connected the caller and the
subject after receiving the guess. A test consisted of six trials.
Interactions Evaluated: The effects of subjects' sex and age and the effects of
time delays on guesses.
Main Outcome Measure: The proportion of correct guesses of the caller's name,
compared with the 33.3% or 50% mean chance expectations.
MainResults: In 2080 trials with three callers there were 869 hits (41.8%),
above the 33.3% chance level (P < 1 x 1015). The hit rate in incomplete tests
was 43.8% (P=.00003) showing that optional stopping could not explain the
positive results. In 745 trials with two callers, there were 411 hits (55.2%),
above the 50% chance level (P=.003). Ananalysis of the data made it very
unlikely that cheating could explain the positive results. These experiments
showed that automated tests for telephone telepathy can be carried out using
mobile phones.
English & Japanese
TELEPATHY IN CONNECTION WITH TELEPHONE CALLS, TEXT MESSAGES AND EMAILS
Journal of International Society of Life Information Science (2014), 32 No. 1,
7-15
https://doi.org/10.18936/islis.32.1_7
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Telepathy in connection with telephone calls is the commonest kind of apparent
telepathy in the modern world. It usually occurs between people who have strong
bonds or emotional connections with each other, such as parents and children,
husbands and wives, and good friends. In experimental tests in which subjects
had to identify who, out of four callers, was calling, the average scores were
very significantly above the 25% hit rate expected by chance. The callers were
selected at random, and the subjects made their guesses before answering the
call. These positive results were replicated independently at the universities
of Amsterdam, Holland, and Freiburg, Germany. Similar telepathic phenomena seem
to occur in connection with emails and SMS messages. Experimental tests using
all these methods gave significantly above-chance results. Versions of telephone
and SMS tests designed to detect precognition, as opposed to telepathy, gave
results at chance level, suggesting that the positive results in the telepathy
tests were indeed a result of telepathy rather than precognition. Automated
telepathy tests using mobile telephones now enable anyone to participate in this
research. These forms of telepathy have evolved in connection with modern
communication technologies and probably occur because people's intention to call
or send a message can be detected telepathically before the call has been made
or the message sent.
PDF
AN AUTOMATED TEST FOR TELEPATHY IN CONNECTION WITH EMAILS
Journal of Scientific Exploration (2009), 23 No. 1, 29-36
by Rupert Sheldrake and Leonidas Avraamides
Abstract
Can people sense telepathically who is sending them an email before they receive
it? Subjects, aged from 12 to 66, registered online with the names and email
addresses of 3 senders. A computer selected a sender at random, and asked him to
send an email message to the subject via the computer. The computer then asked
the subject to guess the sender's name, and delivered the message after
receiving the guess. A test consisted of 6 or 9 trials. In a total of 419
trials, including data from incomplete tests, there were 175 hits (41.8%),
significantly above the 33.3% chance level (p = .0001). Hit rates in incomplete
tests were higher than in complete tests. There was no significant difference
between hit rates with male and female subjects. The highest hit rates were with
subjects in the 20-29 age group. The effect size in these tests was lower than
in previous telephone and email telepathy tests, in spite of the fact that they
were unsupervised. One reason may be that the subjects were being asked to guess
who had sent them a message several minutes earlier, rather than thinking about
them simultaneously.
Full Text PDF
SENSING THE SENDING OF SMS MESSAGES: AN AUTOMATED TEST
Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing (2009) 5, 272-276
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2009.06.004
by Rupert Sheldrake, Leonidas Avraamides, and Matous Novák
Abstract
Objective: To carry out automated experiments to test for telepathy in
connection with text messages.
Method: Subjects, aged from 11 to 72, registered online with the names and
mobile telephone numbers of 3 senders. A computer selected a sender at random,
and asked him to send an SMS message to the subject via the computer. The
computer then asked the subject to guess the sender's name, and delivered the
message after receiving the guess. A test consisted of 9 trials.
Interactions evaluated: The effects of subjects' sex and age and the effects of
delay on guesses.
Main outcome measure: The proportion of correct guesses of the sender's name,
compared with the 33.3% mean chance expectation.
Results: In 886 trials there were 336 hits (37.9%), significantly above the
33.3% chance level (p = .001). The hit rate in incomplete tests was 38.4% (p =
.03) showing that optional stopping could not explain the positive results. Most
tests were unsupervised, which left open the possibility of cheating, but
high-scoring subjects were retested under filmed conditions, where no cheating
was detected, with 19 hits in 43 trials (44.2%; p = 0.09).
Key words: SMS messages, telepathy, ESP, automated test, internet experiment.
Full Text PDF
A RAPID ONLINE TELEPATHY TEST
Psychological Reports (2009)Vol 104 957-970
http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/PR0.104.3.957-970
by Rupert Sheldrake and Ashwin Beharee
Abstract
In an automated online telepathy test, each participant had four senders, two
actual and two virtual, generated by the computer. In a series of twelve
30-second trials, the computer selected one of the senders at random and asked
him to write a message to the subject. After 30 seconds, the participant was
asked to guess who had written a message. After the computer had recorded his
guess it sent him the message. In a total of 6,000 trials there were 1599 hits
(26.7%), significantly above the chance expectation of 25%. In filmed tests the
hit rate was very similar. The hit rate with actual senders was higher than with
virtual senders, but there was a strong guessing bias in favour of actual
senders. When high-scoring subjects were retested, hit rates generally declined,
but one subject repeatedly scored above chance.
PDF
AN AUTOMATED ONLINE TELEPATHY TEST
Journal of Scientific Exploration (2007) Vol 21 No 3, 511-522
by Rupert Sheldrake and Michael Lambert
Abstract
This paper describes an automated online telepathy test in which each receiver
had four senders. In a series of 10 trials the computer picked on of the senders
at random and asked her to write a short message to the receiver. At the end of
the one-minute trial period, the receiver was asked to guess which sender had
written a message, and she received the message only after this guess had been
recorded by the computer. The receivers chose their own senders when they
registered for the test. If they chose only two or three, the computer supplied
virtual senders so that there were four senders altogether. In a total of 1,980
trials there were 581 hits (29%), significantly above the chance expectation of
25% (p = 0.000006). In tests with two real and two virtual senders, there were
significantly more hts with real than virtual senders. Receivers had
significantly higher hit rates with family members than with non-family members.
Cheating seems unlikely, but it could not be ruled out, and for evidential
purposes the hit rates can be regarded as suggestive only. Telepathy could
provide on possible explanation for the above-chance results, but other forms of
ESP could not be eliminated.
Full Text PDF
TESTING FOR TELEPATHY IN CONNECTION WITH E-MAILS
Perceptual and Motor Skills (2005), 101, 771-786
https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.101.3.771-786
by Rupert Sheldrake and Pamela Smart
Abstract
This study investigated possible telepathic communication in connection with
e-mails. On each trial, there were four potential e-mailers, one of whom was
selected at random by the experimenter. One minute before a prearranged time at
which the e-mail was to be sent, the participant guessed who would send it. 50
participants (29 women and 21 men) were recruited through an employment web
site. Of 552 trials, 235 (43%) guesses were hits, significantly above the chance
expectation of 25%. Further tests with 5 participants (4 women, 1 man, ages 16
to 29) were videotaped continuously. On the filmed trials, the 64 hits of 137
(47%) were significantly above chance.
Full Text PDF
VIDEOTAPED EXPERIMENTS ON TELEPHONE TELEPATHY
Journal of Parapsychology (2003) 67, 147-166
by Rupert Sheldrake and Pamela Smart
Abstract
The authors tested whether participants (N = 4) could tell who was calling
before answering the telephone. In each trial, participants had 4 potential
callers, one of whom was selected at random by the experimenter. Participants
were filmed on time-coded videotape throughout the experimental period. When the
telephone began ringing, the participants said to the camera whom they thought
the caller was and, in many cases, also how confident they felt in their
guesses. The callers were usually several miles away, and in some cases
thousands of miles away. By guessing at random, there was a 25% chance of
success. In a total of 271 trials, there were 122 (45%) correct guesses (p =
10-12). The 95% confidence limits of this success rate were from 39% to 51%. In
most trials, some of the callers were familiar to the participants and others
were unfamiliar. With familiar callers there was a success rate of 61% (n = 100;
p = 10-13). With unfamiliar callers the success rate of 20% was not
significantly different from chance. When they said they were confident about
their guesses, participants were indeed more successful than when they were not
confident.
Full Text PDF
A FILMED EXPERIMENT ON TELEPHONE TELEPATHY WITH THE NOLAN SISTERS
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research (2004) 68, 168-172
by Rupert Sheldrake, Hugo Godwin and Simon Rockell
Abstract
The ability of people to guess who is calling on the telephone has recently been
tested experimentally in more than 850 trials. The results were positive and
hugely significant statistically. Participants had four potential callers in
distant locations. At the beginning of each trial, remote from the participant,
the experimenter randomly selected one of the callers by the throw of a die, and
asked the chosen caller to ring the participant. When the phone rang, the
participant guessed who the caller was before picking up the receiver.
By chance, about 25% of the guesses would have been correct. In fact, on average
42% were correct. The present experiment was an attempt to replicate previous
tests, and was filmed for television. The participant and her callers were all
sisters, formerly members of the Nolan Sisters band, popular in Britain in the
1980s. We conducted 12 trials in which the participant and her callers were 1 km
apart. Six out of 12 guesses (50%) were correct. The results were significant at
the p=0.05 level.
Full Text PDF
INVESTIGACIONES EXPERIMENTALES EN TELEPATÍA POR TELÉFONO (SPANISH)
Revista Argentina de Psicología Paranormal 15 No.3-4, Julio-Octubre 2004
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Muchas personas afirman saber quien llama antes de atender el teléfono, o haber
pensado en alguien sin razón aparente, y la persona luego llama. Llevamos cabo
una serie de experimentos para testear si la gente podía o no decirnos realmente
quien estaba llamando por teléfono. Cada participante tuvo cuatro posibles
"llamadores" potenciales, y cuando el teléfono sonaba se les invitaba a decir
quien estaba llamando antes que la otra persona hablara. La probabilidad
estadística de éxito se calculó en un 25% de un total de 571 ensayos no
videograbados, involucrando a 63 participantes. El resultado global fue del 40%
con un 95% de confiabilidad dentro de los límites entre 36 a 45%. El efecto fue
altamente significativo (p= 4x10-16 ). Investigamos subsiguientes pruebas con
cuatro participantes bajo condiciones más rigurosas, de las cuales fueron
videograbadas las sesiones experimentales, y estas videocintas evaluadas en
forma independientemente por un sujeto a "ciegas" de los detalles
experimentales. De un total de 271 ensayos videograbados, el rango de éxito fue
de 45% (p= 1x10-12). El nivel de confiabilidad fue de un 95% dentro de un rango
de éxito de entre el 39% al 51%. Los participantes tuvieron mucho más éxito con
llamadas de familiares que con llamadas de extraños y esta diferencia fue
estadísticamente significativa. No hubo efecto de declinación con la distancia,
aún cuando algunos llamadores se encontraban a 18.000 km. de distancia. Estos
efectos parecen ser inexplicables en términos de habiliades o fraude y produjo
una fuerte evidencia de la realidad de la telepatía telefónica.
Many people claim to have known who was calling before they picked up the
telephone, or to have thought about someone for no apparent reason, and that
person then called. We carried out a series of experiments to test whether or
not people really could tell who was telephoning. Each participant had four
potential callers, and when the telephone rang had to guess who was calling
before the other person spoke. By chance the success rate would have been 25%.
In a total of 571 non-videotaped trials, involving 63 participants, the overall
success rate was 40%, with 95% confidence limits from 36 to 45%. This effect was
highly significant statistically (p= 4x10-16). We then carried out further
trials with four participants under more rigorous conditions in which they were
videotaped throughout the experimental sessions, and the videotapes were
evaluated independently by a person blind to the experimental details. In a
total of 271 videotaped trials the success rate was 45% (p= 1x10-12). The 95%
confidence limits of this success rate were from 39% to 51%. Participants were
much more successful with familiar callers than unfamiliar callers, and this
difference was highly significant statistically. There was no decline with
distance, even when callers were 18.000 km. away. These effects do not seem to
be explicable in terms of artefacts or cheating and provide strong evidence for
the reality of telephone telepathy.
Full Text PDF
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS FOR TELEPHONE TELEPATHY
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research (July 2003) 67, 184-199
by Rupert Sheldrake and Pamela Smart
Abstract
Many people claim to have known who was calling before they picked up the
telephone, or to have thought about someone for no apparent reason, who then
called. We carried out a series of experiments to test whether or not people
really could tell who was telephoning. Each participant had four potential
callers, and when the telephone rang had to guess who was calling before the
other person spoke. By chance the success rate would have been 25%. In a total
of 571 trials, involving 63 participants, the overall success rate was 40%, with
95% confidence limits from 36 to 45%. This effect was hugely significant
statistically (p = 4 x 10-16). We obtained similar positive effects when the
calls were made at randomly chosen times, and when the calls were made at fixed
times known to the subject in advance. With 37 participants, we compared the
success rates with familiar and unfamiliar callers and found a striking
difference. With familiar callers, 53% of the guesses were correct (n = 190; p =
1 x 10-16). With unfamiliar callers, only 25% of the guesses were correct,
exactly at the chance level. This difference between the responses with familiar
and unfamiliar callers was highly significant (p = 3 x 10-7). We also
investigated the effects of distance between the callers and participants. With
overseas callers at least 1,000 miles away, the success rate was 65% (n = 43; p
= 3 x 10-8). With callers in Britain, the success rate was lower (35%). In most
cases, the overseas callers were people to whom the participants were closely
bonded. For the successful identification of callers, emotional closeness seemed
to be more important than physical proximity.
Full Text PDF
APPARENT TELEPATHY BETWEEN BABIES AND NURSING MOTHERS: A SURVEY
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research (2002) 66 181-185
Abstract
Some nursing mothers claim that when they are away from their baby they often
know when their baby needs them because their milk lets down. Some are convinced
that this response is telepathic. In order to find out more about this
phenomenon, 100 mothers who had recently had babies were surveyed and asked a
series of questions about their experiences when breastfeeding. 62% had
experienced milk let-down when away from their babies and 16% had noticed that
this seemed to coincide with their baby needing them. Most of these women
breastfed their babies for more than six months. In addition, 3 women said they
had felt there was something wrong with their baby when they were away from
home, and found that it was indeed in distress because of a fall or other
accident, and 5 women commented that they often woke up shortly before their
baby needed them in the night.
Full Text PDF
THE ANTICIPATION OF TELEPHONE CALLS: A SURVEY IN CALIFORNIA
Journal of Parapsychology (2001) 65 145-156
by David Jay Brown and Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
200 randomly-selected people were surveyed in Santa Cruz County, California to
investigate the frequency and nature of anticipations of telephone calls. 78% of
the people surveyed said that they have had the experience of telephoning
someone who said that they were just thinking about telephoning them. 47% of the
respondents said that they had had the experience of knowing who was calling
them when the phone rang without any possible cue. 68% of those surveyed said
that they had thought about a person that they haven't seen for a while, who had
then telephoned them that same day. A higher proportion of women than men gave
positive answers to these questions. These results are in general agreement with
two previous surveys in England, although there were several significant
differences, which we discuss. These surveys reveal that seemingly telepathic
experiences in connection with telephone calls are remarkably common. We suggest
ways that this phenomenon can be investigated empirically.
Full Text PDF
TELEPATHIC TELEPHONE CALLS: TWO SURVEYS
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research (2000) 64 224-232
Abstract
Many people claim to have thought about a particular person who then calls them
on the telephone. Through informal surveys I have found that seemingly
telepathic telephone calls are common. Two telephone surveys were carried out in
London and Bury to investigate the frequency of these experiences in a random
sample of the population. In both surveys, half the respondents said they had
felt that someone was about to telephone them just before they did. In Bury, 45
per cent of the respondents said they had thought about a person they had not
seen for a while who then telephoned the same day, and two thirds of the Bury
respondents said they had telephoned people who said they were just thinking
about telephoning them. In Bury, 37 per cent of respondents who said they had
know in advance who was calling without any possible clue said this happened
often. In both surveys significantly more women than men gave positive
responses, and in both surveys more pet owners than people without pets gave
positive responses. In London significantly more people claimed to have
anticipated telephone calls that to have had psychic experiences. Telepathic
telephone calls may be one of the commonest kinds of psychic experience in the
modern world, and I suggest ways in which they can be investigated empirically.
RELATED RESEARCH BY OTHERS
PDF
DO YOU KNOW WHO IS CALLING? EXPERIMENTS ON ANOMALOUS COGNITION IN PHONE CALL
RECEIVERS
The Open Psychology Journal, 2009, 2, 12-18
http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874350100902010012
by Schmidt S.; Erath D.; Ivanova Vm; Walach H.
Abstract
Many people report that they know in advance who is on the phone when the
telephone is ringing. Sheldrake and Smart [1, 2] conducted experiments where
participants had to determine which one of four possible callers is on the phone
while the telephone was still ringing. They report highly significant hit rates
that cannot be explained by conventional theories.
We attempted to replicate these findings in a series of three experiments. In
study one, 21 participants were asked to identify the callers of 20 phone calls
each. Overall 26.7 % were identified correctly (mean chance expectation 25%,
ns). In a second study a pre-selection test was introduced in a different
experimental setting. Eight participants identified 30% of the calls correctly
(p = .15). However one of the participants recognized 10 out of 20 calls
correctly (p = .014). We conducted a third study with only this participant. In
an additional 60 trials she could identify 24 callers correctly (p = .007). We
conclude that we could not find any anomalous cognition effect in self-selected
samples. But our data also strongly suggest that there are a few participants
who are able to score reliably and repeatedly above chance.
PDF
WHO'S CALLING AT THIS HOUR? : LOCAL SIDEREAL TIME AND TELEPHONE TELEPATHY
by Eva Lobach and Dick J. Bierman, University of Amsterdam
Paper presented at the Parapsychology Association Annual Convention, Vienna,
August 2004
Abstract
Can we guess who is calling us on the phone before picking up, and does local
sidereal time (LST) affect how often we guess right? Reviews of anomalous
cognition studies have shown that effect sizes are highest around 13.30 LST
(Spottiswoode, 1997). A post-hoc analysis of telephone telepathy data of
Sheldrake (2003) also showed a peak at that time. LST (peak or non-peak) was an
independent variable in our prospective telephone telepathy study. Six women who
indicated they often experienced telephone telepathy were selected to
participate. Each participant chose four close friends or relatives to act as
callers. All completed a total of 36 trials; six sessions of six trials each,
three sessions at peak time (between 8.00 and 9.00 local time) and three at
non-peak time (between 17.30 and 18.30 local time). One of the experimenters was
at the participant's home during the sessions. The experimenter made sure no
irregular communication was going on and logged times of the calls and responses
of the participant. At a different location another experimenter used a dice to
select a caller about five minutes before the scheduled trial. Then he or she
contacted the caller who was asked to call the participant in five minutes and
to concentrate his or her thoughts on the participant for the last two minutes
before the call was made. When the phone rang at the participant's home, the
participant guessed who she thought was calling before picking up. Analyses show
a significant over-all scoring rate of 29.4% (p = .05). Almost all of this
effect originates from the sessions at peak time with a scoring rate of 34.6%.
Exploratory analyses show that a stronger emotional bond between particpant and
caller is associated with a higher hitrate. It is concluded that results provide
tentative support for the hypothesis that Local Sidereal Time is related to a
phenomenon like telephone telepathy. In addition, the results are in support of
the existence of telephone telepathy. Other explanations of the anomalous effect
cannot be ruled out, such as precognition, retro psychokinesis by the
experimenter or the participant so the dice throw would coincide with the
particular caller the participant would guess, or clairvoyance of the dice
throws. Future studies should aim at teasing apart the supposed effects of LST
and local time on 'telephone telepathy.'
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT
Show All Abstracts Hide
Introduction
Is it Real?
Implications
Response
SPECIAL EDITION OF THE JOURNAL OF CONSCIOUSNESS STUDIES
A special edition of the Journal of Consciousness Studies (2005) Vol 12 No. 6
Editorial Introduction by Anthony Freeman: The Sense of Being Glared At
Rupert's papers from the Journal:
Abstract
Part 1: Is it Real or Illusory?
Part 2: Its Implications for Theories of Vision
The Non-Visual Detection of Staring - Response to Commentators
The complete edition, entitled Sheldrake and His Critics: The Sense of Being
Glared At is available in paperback.
In 1981 Rupert Sheldrake outraged the scientific establishment with his
hypothesis of morphic resonance. Subsequently he devoted his research to
pioneering science, winning popular acclaim and continued establishment
opprobium with a series of ground-breaking works. In this special edition of
JCS, Rupert summarises his case for the 'non-visual detection of staring'. His
claims are scrutinised by fourteen critics, to whom Rupert then responds.
Anthony Freeman, in his editorial introduction, explores the concept of "heresy"
in science and in religion and asks why it provokes such hostility.
Full Text PDF
THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT: AN AUTOMATED TEST ON THE INTERNET
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (2008) 72, 86-97
by Rupert Sheldrake, Charles Overby and Ashwin Beeharee
Abstract
In previous research on the sense of being stared at participants worked in
pairs, with the starer behind the staree. In a series of 20 randomized trials,
the starer looked or did not look at the staree, who had to guess "looking" or
"not looking". We here describe an automated, internet-based version of this
standard staring experiment. In 498 tests, each with 20 trials, the computer
gave an automatic sound signal to indicate when each trial began. The average
hit rate was 53.0% (p <1x10-6); 268 participants scored above the chance level
of 10 out of 20, 150 below, and 80 at the chance level. There was no significant
difference between male and female starees, and little effect of starees' age.
The highest hit rates were with parent-child participants. Hit rates were
significantly higher when starees received trial-by-trial feedback, but there
was no increase in the second half of the test compared with the first. Although
these tests were unsupervised, the results replicated many of the features of
previous tests and illustrate the potential for carrying out research through
the internet, enabling widespread participation.
Full Text PDF
THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT: DO HIT RATES IMPROVE AS TESTS GO ON?
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (2008) 72, 98-106
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Simple experiments on the sense of being stared at have given repeatable,
positive results that are highly significant statistically. In these
experiments, people work in pairs. The staree sits with his or her back to the
starer, who either looks at the back of the staree's neck, or looks away, in a
random sequence. In each trial, the staree has to guess whether or not the
starer is looking. However, when Marks & Colwell (2001) and Lobach & Bierman
(2004) conducted tests of this kind, some of their experiments gave results not
significantly different from chance, and they attempted to explain the positive
results in staring tests as artifacts. Their hypotheses predict that positive
scores should arise only in trials with feedback, only in trials with one
particular kind of randomization, and that scores should increase towards the
end of the experimental session. I have examined the data from the first and
second halves of more than 19,000 trials to test these predictions. Both with
and without feedback, and also with different randomization methods, the scores
were positive and statistically significant in both the first and the second
halves of tests. With feedback there was a small increase in scores in the
second halves, but this was not statistically significant. Without feedback,
there was a tendency for the scores to decline. In a trial-by-trial analysis of
one large-scale experiment, the highest hit rate occurred in the very first
trial for starees who were about to receive feedback, before any feedback had
actually been given! Thus the beneficial effect of feedback may not depend so
much on the feedback itself as the state of mind of the participants.
Full Text PDF
INVESTIGATING SCOPAESTHESIA: ATTENTIONAL TRANSITIONS, CONTROLS AND ERROR RATES
IN REPEATED TESTS
Journal of Scientific Exploration 22, 517-527 (2008)
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The sense of being stared at, or scopesthesia, was investigated experimentally
with participants working in pairs. Two participants were tested repeatedly and
the effect of attentional transition was investigated. In some tests, in the
pre-trial period the starer stared at the staree, who was blindfolded, and in
others the starer did not stare during the pre-trial period. Their overall hit
rate in these attentional transition tests was 52.8% (2,800 trials; p=0.002),
but there was no significant difference in hit rates between the two kinds of
test. Participants were given trial-by-trial feedback, so if there was any
learning, there should have been a progressive increase in hit rates. This did
not happen. The participants also took part in a control tests in which there
was no staring at all. In these tests hit rates were at chance levels,
indicating that other forms of ESP, such as telepathy and clairvoyance, could
not account for the results in scopesthesia tests. There were only 3 recording
errors in 2,800 trials (0.1%), and two of these cancelled out, leaving a net
error rate of 0.04%.
Full Text PDF
EXPERIMENTS ON THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT: THE ELIMINATION OF POSSIBLE
ARTEFACTS
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, Vol. 65, pp.122-137 (2001)
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The sense of being stared at from behind can be investigated by means of simple
experiments in which subjects and lookers work in pairs, with the looker sitting
behind the subject. In a random sequence of trials the looker either looks at
the back of the subject, or looks away and thinks of something else. In each
trial the subject guesses whether or not he or she is being looked at. There is
a 50% probability of getting it right by chance. More than 15,000 trials have
already been conducted, involving more than 700 subjects, with extremely
significant excess of correct over incorrect guesses (Sheldrake, 1999),
indicating that people really can tell when they are being looked at from
behind. In this paper I discuss possible artifacts that could have affected
these results and describe the results of experiments carried out in a school in
London in which I investigated the effects of blindfolding subjects and giving
them feedback about whether their guesses were correct or not. Blindfolding and
feedback had no significant effects. Under all conditions the scores in looking
trials were positive and statistically significant, and in not-looking trials at
chance levels. I also describe the results of a series of experiments carried
out in schools in Ireland with blindfolded subjects who were not given feedback.
The significant positive scores in these experiments confirmed that the feeling
of being stared at from behind does not depend on visual clues, nor does it
depend on the subjects knowing if their guesses are right or wrong.
Full Text PDF
FOLLOW-UP RESEARCH ON THE FEELING OF BEING STARED AT
Skeptical Inquirer (2000), March/April, 58-61
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Two recent articles in the Skeptical Inquirer have claimed that the feeling of
being stared at is an illusion. Both have attempted to refute my own
experimental research on the subject, which indicates that many people do indeed
have an unexplained ability to detect stares.
A variety of surveys have shown that most people believe they can feel unseen
stares (Sheldrake 1994). In his article "Can we tell when someone is staring at
us?" (March/April 2000 SI) Robert A. Baker, a CSICOP Fellow, dismissed this
belief as false. "Skeptics.... believe that it is nothing more than a
superstition and/or a response to subtle signals from the environment." (Baker
2000, p. 40). He claimed to provide empirical evidence to support his
presuppositions.
Full Text PDF
THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT: EXPERIMENTS IN SCHOOLS
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research 62: 311-323 (1998)
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Simple experiments to test whether or not people can tell when they are being
stared at from behind were carried out in schools in Germany and the United
States. Lookers and subjects worked in pairs, with the lookers sitting behind
the subjects. In a series of trials the lookers either looked or did not look at
the subjects in a random sequence determined by tossing a coin. In each trial,
the subjects guessed whether or not they were being looked at. The results show
an overall positive effect, with 56.9% correct guesses as opposed to 50%
expected by chance. 97 of the subjects were right more often than they were
wrong, and 42 were wrong more often than they were right. This positive effect
was highly significant statistically (p=3x10-6). The data showed a consistent
pattern. There was a positive effect when the subjects were being looked at,
while the guesses were not significantly different from chance when they were
not being looked at. In one school in Germany where sensitive subjects were
tested repeatedly, 71.2% of the guesses were correct, and two students were
right about 90% of the time. Possible sources of artefacts in these experiments
are examined, and the implications of the results are discussed.
PDF
RESEARCH IN SCHOOLS ON THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT
Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 1997;17(4):175-178
https://doi.org/10.1177/027046769701700406
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Simple experiments to test whether or not people can tell when they are being
stared at from behind were carried out in schools in Germany and the United
States. Lookers and subjects worked in pairs, with the lookers sitting behind
the subjects. In a series of trials the lookers either looked or did not look at
the subjects in a random sequence determined by tossing a coin. In each trial,
the subjects guessed whether or not they were being looked at. The results show
an overall positive effect, with 56.9% correct guesses as opposed to 50%
expected by chance. 97 of the subjects were right more often than they were
wrong, and 42 were wrong more often than they were right. This positive effect
was highly significant statistically (p=3x10-6). The data showed a consistent
pattern. There was a positive effect when the subjects were being looked at,
while the guesses were not significantly different from chance when they were
not being looked at. In one school in Germany where sensitive subjects were
tested repeatedly, 71.2% of the guesses were correct, and two students were
right about 90% of the time. Possible sources of artefacts in these experiments
are examined, and the implications of the results are discussed.
Full Text PDF
THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT DOES NOT DEPEND ON KNOWN SENSORY CLUES
Biology Forum 93 209-224
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The "sense of being stared at" can be investigated by means of simple
experiments in which subjects and lookers work in pairs, with the looker sitting
behind the subject. In a random sequence of trials, the looker either looks at
the back of the subject, or looks away and thought of something else. More than
15,000 trials have already been conducted, involving more than 700 subjects,
with an extremely significant excess of correct over incorrect guesses
(Sheldrake [1999]). This effect was still apparent in experiments in which
subjects were blindfolded and given no feedback, showing it did not depend on
visual clues, nor on the subjects knowing if their guesses were right or wrong
(Sheldrake [2000]). In this paper I describe experiments I conducted in schools
in England in which the subjects were not only blindfolded and given no
feedback, but looked at through closed windows. There was again a very
significant excess of correct over incorrect guesses (p<0.004). At my request,
teachers in Canada, Germany and the United States carried out similar
experiments and found an even more significant positive effect than in my own
experiments (p< 0.0002). The fact that positive results were still obtained when
visual clues had been effectively eliminated by blindfolds, and auditory and
olfactory clues by closed windows, implies that the sense of being stared at
does not depend on the known senses. I conclude that peoples' ability to know
when they are being looked at depends on an influence at present unknown to
science.
Full Text PDF
THE SENSE OF BEING STARED AT CONFIRMED BY SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS
Biology Forum 92: 53-76 (1999)
https://doi.org/10.1400/22763
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The feeling of being stared from behind is well known all over the world, and
most people claim to have experienced it themselves. There have been
surprisingly few empirical investigations of this phenomenon. I describe a
simple experimental procedure with subjects and lookers working in pairs. In a
random sequence of trials, the looker either looked at the back of the subject,
or looked away and thought of something else. Such experiments showed a very
significant excess of correct over incorrect guesses. When subjects were being
looked at, they guessed correctly about 60% of the time, whereas in control
trials, when they were not being looked at, their guesses were close to the
chance level of 50%. The same pattern of results was found in my own experiments
with adult subjects, with two different procedures: in experiments conducted in
schools in Connecticut, USA: in experiments conducted by volunteers all around
the world; and in a previous series of experiments in schools in Germany and the
USA. All these sets of data showed a highly significant effect. Taken together
they showed that in looking trials, 427 people were more often right than wrong,
as opposed to 157 who were more often wrong than right. This difference is
extremely significant (p<1x10-25). In the control trials, there was no
significant difference between the number of people who were more often right
than wrong (294) and more often wrong than right (287). These results suggest
that the feeling of being looked at from behind is a real phenomenon that
depends on factors as yet unknown to science. Non-human animals may also share
this kind of sensitivity, which may be of evolutionary sugnificance in the
relationships between predators and prey.
RELATED RESEARCH BY OTHERS
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DISTANT INTENTIONALITY AND THE FEELING OF BEING STARED AT: TWO META-ANALYSES
British Journal of Psychology, 1 May 2004, vol. 95, no. 2, pp. 235-247(13)
https://doi.org/10.1348/000712604773952449
by Schmidt S.; Schneider R.; Utts J.; Walach H.
Abstract
Findings in parapsychology suggest an effect of distant intentionality. Two
laboratory set-ups explored this topic by measuring the effect of a distant
intention on psychophysiological variables. The 'Direct Mental Interaction in
Living Systems' experiment investigates the effect of various intentions on the
electrodermal activity of a remote subject. The 'Remote Staring' experiment
examines whether gazing by an observer covaries with the electrodermal activity
of the person being observed. Two meta-analyses were conducted. A small
significant effect size (d =.11, p = .001) was found in 36 studies on 'direct
mental interaction', while a best-evidence-synthesis of 7 studies yielded d =
.05 (p = .50). In 15 remote staring studies a mean effect size of d = 0.13 (p =
.01) was obtained. It is concluded that there are hints of an effect, but also a
shortage of independent replications and theoretical concepts.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON FORM FROM SOUND
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DETERMINANTS OF FARADAY WAVE-PATTERNS IN WATER SAMPLES OSCILLATED VERTICALLY AT
A RANGE OF FREQUENCIES FROM 50-200 HZ
Water (2017) Vol 9
http://dx.doi.org/10.14294/WATER.2017.6
by Merlin Sheldrake & Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The standing wave patterns formed on the surface of a vertically oscillated
fluid enclosed by a container have long been a subject of fascination, and are
known as Faraday waves. In circular containers, stable, radially symmetrical
Faraday wave-patterns are resonant phenomena, and occur at the vibrational modes
where whole numbers of waves fit exactly onto the surface of the fluid sample.
These phenomena make excellent systems for the study of pattern formation and
complex nonlinear dynamics. We provide a systematic exploration of variables
that affect Faraday wave pattern formation on water in vertical-walled circular
containers including amplitude, frequency, volume (or depth), temperature, and
atmospheric pressure. In addition, we developed a novel method for the
quantification of the time taken for patterns to reach full expression following
the onset of excitation. The excitation frequency and diameter of the container
were the variables that most strongly affected pattern morphology. Amplitude
affected the degree to which Faraday wave patterns were expressed but did not
affect pattern morphology. Volume (depth) and temperature did not affect overall
pattern morphology but in some cases altered the time taken for patterns to
form. We discuss our findings in light of René Thom’s catastrophe theory, and
the framework of attractors and basins of attraction. We suggest that Faraday
wave phenomena represent a convenient and tractable analogue model system for
the study of morphogenesis and vibrational modal phenomena in dynamical systems
in general, examples of which abound in physical and biological systems.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON JOINT ATTENTION
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IS JOINT ATTENTION DETECTABLE AT A DISTANCE? THREE AUTOMATED, INTERNET-BASED
TESTS
Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing (2016) 12 No.1: 34-41
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2015.10.006
by Rupert Sheldrake and Ashweeni Beeharee
Abstract
Context
Joint attention is the shared focus of two or more individuals on the same
object. Sensory cues, such as detecting the direction of another person׳s gaze,
play a major role in establishing joint attention. It may also involve a kind of
mental resonance that might be felt by the people involved.
Objective
The aim of this study was to find out whether people could feel when another
person was looking at the same picture at the same time, even when the
participants were many miles apart.
Method
Participants registered online with their names and e-mail addresses, and worked
in pairs. After they both logged on for the test they were simultaneously shown
one of two photographs, with a 0.5 probability of seeing the same picture. After
20 s they were asked if their partner was looking at the same picture or not.
After both had registered their guess, the next trial began, with a different
pair of pictures. The main outcome measure was the proportion of correct
guesses, compared with the 50% mean chance expectation. This test was
symmetrical in that all participants were both “senders” and “receivers.”
Results
In the first experiment, with 11,160 trials, the hit rate was 52.8% (P < 1 ×
10−6); in the second experiment with 2720 trials, 51.3% (P = .09). The third
experiment involved music as well as pictures, and with 8860 trials, the hit
rate was 51.9% (P = .0003). Some partners were more than 1000 miles apart, but
there were no significant effect of distance. Participants who received
immediate feedback about whether their guess was right or wrong did not score
significantly better than those without feedback.
PDF
LINKING MINDS THROUGH JOINT ATTENTION: A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
Journal of the Society for Psychical Research (2015) 79 No. 4: 193-200
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
This study investigated whether people could tell when another person was
looking at teh same object.participants looking directly at the same object.
Participants worked in pairs. They were separated by a wall in such a way that
they could not see each other, but both could see a target object such as an
apple. Tests consisted of 20 trials, each lasting about 10 seconds. One of the
participants (the ‘ looker’) either looked at the object, or did not look, in a
random sequence, and the other participant (the ‘guesser’) had to guess whether
or not the other person was looking at the object. Altogether there were 310
tests with 6,200 trials. The total number of hits was 3,255 (52.5%),
significantly above the chance level of 50% (p = 0.00003).
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS
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BE MORE ACTIVE IN REPORTS
Times Educational Supplement January 7, 2005
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Why are many schoolchildren still told to write up their science reports in the
passive, as though experiments happened of their own accord? Many scientists
abandoned this convention years ago. Watson and Crick's famous paper on the
structure of DNA in Nature was in the active voice in 1953.
PDF
BLIND RESEARCH: ARE THE HARD SCIENCES IMMUNE FROM EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS?
Skeptic (2003), Vol 10, No 1
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
In scientific research, as in everyday life, our beliefs and biases often
influence how we observe and interpret the world. In experimental psychology and
clinical research, this problem is widely recognized, which is why experiments
in these subjects are often carried out under blind or double-blind conditions.
There is solid experimental evidence that experimenters' attitudes and
expectations can influence the outcome of experiments.
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PERSONALLY SPEAKING
New Scientist, July 19, 2001
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Most scientific journals accept papers in the active voice and some, including
Nature, positively encourage it. When I surveyed the current issues of 55
journals in the physical and biological sciences I found only two that still
required contributors to use the passive.
Full Text PDF
HOW WIDELY IS BLIND ASSESSMENT USED IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH?
Alternative Therapies 5(3), 88-91, May 1999
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
In everyday life, as in scientific research, "our beliefs, desires and
expectations can influence, often subconsciously, how we observe and interpret
things", as a recent article in the Skeptical Inquirer expressed it.(note 1) In
experimental psychology and clinical research, these principles are widely
recognized, which is why experiments in these subjects are often carried out
under blind or double-blind conditions. There is overwhelming experimental
evidence that experimenters' attitudes and expectations can indeed influence the
outcome of experiments.
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EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: HOW WIDELY ARE THEY NEGLECTED?
Journal of Scientific Exploration 12, 73-78, 1998
https://doi.org/10.1177%2F027046769701700405
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
A survey of recent papers published in a range of scientific journals showed
that the used of blind methodologies is very rare in the so-called hard
sciences. In the physical sciences, no blind experiments were found among the
237 papers reviewed. In the biological sciences, there were 7 blind experiments
out of 914 (0.8%). There was a higher proportion in the medical sciences, 6 out
of 102 (5.9%), and in psychology and animal behaviour, 7 out of 143 (4.9%). By
far the highest proportion (85.2%) was in parapsychology. A survey of science
departments in 11 British Universities showed that blind methodologies are
neither used nor taught in 22 out of 23 physics and chemistry departments, or in
14 out of 16 biochemistry and molecular biology departments. By contrast, blind
methodologies are sometimes practised and taught in 4 out of 8 genetics
departments, and in 6 out of 8 physiology departments. I propose a simple
procedure that could be used to detect possible experimenter effects in any
branch of science, by comparing the results of a given experiment conducted both
under open and blind conditions.
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COULD EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS OCCUR IN THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES?
Skeptical Inquirer 22(3), 57-58 May / June 1998
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Probably most skeptics would agree with Michael Mussachia (SI Nov/Dec 1995) that
"our beliefs, desires and expectations can influence, often subconsciously, how
we observe and interpret things". In psychology and clinical medicine these
principles are widely recognized, which is why experiments in these subjects are
often carried out under blind or double-blind conditions.
RELATED RESEARCH BY OTHERS
PDF
RUPERT SHELDRAKE AND THE OBJECTIVITY OF SCIENCE
Skeptical Inquirer, 1999, vol 23 no 5
by Richard Wisemand and Caroline Watt
Abstract
Controversial biologist Rupert Sheldrake has recently published surveys
suggesting that much of the current research in science may suffer from an
important methodological problem that could seriously challenge the validity of
many scientific findings. This article sets in motion a project designed to
assess the impact of Sheldrake's provocative findings.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON CROP PHYSIOLOGY
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EFFECT OF HARVEST METHODS ON THE SECOND FLUSH YIELD OF SHORT-DURATION PIGEONPEA
(CAJANUS CAJAN)
J.agric. Sci., Camb. (1987) 109, 591-593
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859600081818
by Y.S. Chauhan, R. Sheldrake, N. Venkataratnam
Abstract
Short-duration pigeonpea can give up to three harvests in environments with mild
winters (eg. minimum temperature above 10*C) such as those prevailing in
peninsular India (Sharma, Saxena & Green, 1978; Chauhan, Venkataratnam &
Sheldrake, 1984). This is mainly due to the short time (about 120 days) taken to
produce the first flush, and the strong perennial character of pigeonpea. The
seed yield of short-duration pigeonpea in this multiple-harvest system may reach
5.2t/ha (Chauhan et al. 1984).
Venkataratnam & Sheldrake (1985) found that the yield of the second harvest of
medium-duration pigeonpea was significantly influenced by the method of
harvesting of the first flush. The lower the plants were cut, the smaller were
the second-harvest yields. A positive relationship between the height at which
the stem was cut and success of ratooning was also reported by Suarez & Herreara
(1971). Tayo (1985), however, found that in the lowland tropics, plants of a
dwarf pigeonpea variety ratooned at 0.3 m had better growth and yield than
hand-picked plants; ratooning at 0.6 m height was intermediate. Information on
the effect of different harvest methods on yield of short-duration pigeonpea in
subtropical, semi-arid environments is not available. The objective of this
study was to obtain this information.
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FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND YIELD OF SHORT-DURATION PIGEONPEA AND ITS POTENTIAL
FOR MULTIPLE HARVESTS
J.agric. Sci., Camb. (1987) 109, 519-529
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859600081739
by Y.S. Chauhan, N. Venkataratnam, R. Sheldrake
Abstract
Environmental and cultural factors that may limit the yield of short-duration
pigeonpea were investigated over three seasons. Plants in the peninsular Indian
environment at Patancheru grew less and produced less dry matter by first-flush
maturity than at Hisar, a location in northern India where the environment is
considered favourable for the growth of short-duration pigeonpea. However, with
a similar sowing date in June, the mean seed yields of three genotypes, ICPL4,
ICPL81 and ICPL87, were very similar, at about 2-3t/ha, in both environments.
This was mainly due to the higher ratio of grain to above-ground dry matter at
Patancheru. In addition to the first harvest, all genotypes showed a potential
for two more harvests owing to the warm winters at Patancheru. The potential for
multiple harvests was particularly high in ICPL 87, which yielded 5.2t/ha from
three harvests in 1982-3, 3.6t/ha from two harvests in 1983-4, and 4.1 t/ha from
three harvests in 1984-5. The optimum plant population density at Patancheru was
25-35 plants/m2 for ICPL 87, but was higher for the other two genotypes.
At Patancheru, the total dry-matter and seed yield of first and subsequent
harvests were significantly reduced by delaying sowing beyond June. Generally,
the second-and the third-harvest yields were lower on vertisol than on alfisol
under both irrigated and unirrigated conditions.
The total yield of ICPL 87 from two harvests was far higher than that of a
well-adapted medium-duration genotype BDN 1, grown over a similar period. The
yield advantage was greater on the alfisol because of the better multiple
harvest potential of this soil. The results of this study demonstrate that
properly managed short-duration genotypes of pigeonpea may have considerable
potential for increased yield from multiple harvests in environments where
winters are warm enough to merit continued growth.
PDF
A PERENNIAL CROPPING SYSTEM FROM PIGEONPEA GROWN IN POST-RAINY SEASON
Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 57, 895-9, 1987
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The feasibility of growing pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (LInn.) Millsp.] as a
perennial crop was investigated during 1980-82. The medium-duration pigeonpea
genotype 'ICP 1-6', sown in the post-rainy season at a population of 30
plants/m2, was allowed to perennate for 18 months, during which it produced 3
flushes of pods at 5,15 and 18 months after sowing. There was a substantial
plant mortality after the first-flush harvest, but due to the high-sowing rate
many plants survived and regenerated to form a closed canopy in the following
rainy season. The mean yield of 2 seasons was 0.5 tonne/ha in the first flush, 1
tonne/ha in the second and 0.05 tonne/ha in the third. The yield from the second
flush was obtained without weeding or insecticide spray and was comparable to
that of the rainfed crop of medium-duration genotypes. Considerable leaf fall
also occurred, which contributed 40kg N/ha to the soil. The yield from the third
flush was very low to warrant continuation of the crop for another 3-4 months
after the second-flush crop. At this harvest the mean firewood (air-dried stem)
yield was 3.5 tonnes/ha. The system has good potential in the wet rainy season
fallows in peninsular India, as it enables pigeonpea after the rainy season with
little efforts and few inputs.
PDF
SECOND HARVEST YIELDS OF MEDIUM DURATION PIGEONPEAS (CAJANUS CAJAN) IN
PENINSULAR INDIA
Field Crops Research (Dec 1985), 10(4), 323-332
by N.Venkataratnam and R. Sheldrake
Abstract
In Peninsular India medium duration pigeonpeas (Cajanus cajan) are normally sown
soon after the onset of the monsoon, in June or July; they mature around
December, when they are usually cut down and removed from the field. However, if
they are harvested by ratooning or by picking the pods, the plants go on to
produce a second flush of pods, which matures around March. In experiments
conducted in four growing seasons at ICRISAT Center, second harvest yields were
usually greater for non-ratooned than ratooned plants, and in experiments
conducted on Vertisols they were greater for the plants ratooned high up in the
plant than for those cut closer to the ground. Second harvest yields of
non-ratooned plants without irrigation on Alfisols were on average 66% of the
first harvest yields, but on Vertisols only 37%, in spite of the greater
water-holding capacity of the latter. On Alfisols second harvest yields were
approximately doubled by a single irrigation, but there was less response to
irrigation on Vertisols. The poorer second harvest yields on Vertisols may have
been due to the damaging effects of soil cracking on the root system of the
plants. In non-ratooned plants from which the first and second flushes of pods
were harvested together, yields were less than the total yield obtained from
non-ratooned plants in two harvests, even though the yield loss, mainly due to
pod shattering, was as little as 4% in one year. The taking of second harvests
from pigeonpeas grown on Alfisols may have considerable potential as a method of
obtaining additional yield for little extra cost.
PDF
PIGEONPEA PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 11 of The Physiology of Tropical Field Crops ed. P. H. Goldsworthy and
N. M. Fisher, Blackwell, Oxford (1984)
PDF
THE ANATOMY OF THE PIGEONPEA
Research Bulletin No. 5, 1981
International Crop Research Institute for the Semi*Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),
Patancheru
by S.S. Bisen and R. Sheldrake
Abstract
During the 3 years 1974-77 we studied the anatomy of most of the tissues and
organs of the pigeonpea and, in the course of this work, have built up a
collection of permanent microscope slides. These are retained in the Anatomy
Laboratory at ICRISAT as a reference collection and may be consulted by anyone
who is interested.
This report contains a brief and preliminary description of pigeonpea anatomy.
We have studied the anatomy of several different cultivars; unless otherwise
indicated, the following general descriptions apply to all cultivars
investigated. We have not noticed any striking qualitative anatomical
differences among cultivars; nodoubt quantitative differences exist, but these
are difficult to establish with anatomical methods involving very small samples.
Many of the features of the anatomy of the pigeonpea are similar to those of
other dicotyledonous plants, described in standard textbooks of anatomy. We have
not attempted to duplicate these descriptions. Some aspects of the anatomy of
the pigeonpea have been covered in detail by Dr. P. Venkateshwara Rao in his
Ph.D. thesis under reference (nodate). A copy of this thesis is available in the
ICRISAT library.
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EFFECT OF SEED-GRADING ON THE YIELDS OF CHICKPEA AND PIGEONPEA
Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 1981, 51, 389-393
by R. Sheldrake, N.P. Saxena, A. Narayanan
Abstract
Larger seeds of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) gave
rise to larger seedlings than did smaller seeds. When approximately half the
cotyledonary reserves from pigeonpea seeds were removed, seedling weight was
reduced to about half of the controls, suggesting that seedling growth was
related to the reserve material in the seeds. Seed-grading had no significant
effect on the yield of either of these crops grown on a Vertisol and on Alfisol
in Andhra Pradesh, or on an Entisol in Haryana or in the Lahaul valley of the
western Himalayas. Seeds harvested from pigeonpea grown from larger seeds were
significantly heavier than those from plants derived from small seeds, probably
because of the genetic heterogeneity of the varieties.
PDF
VARIETAL DIFFERENCES IN SEED SIZE AND SEEDLING GROWTH OF PIGIONPEA AND CHICKPEA
Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, (1981), 51, 389-393
by A. Narayanan, N.P. Saxena and R. Sheldrake
Abstract
The influence of seed size on seedling growth of pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan
(Linn.) Millsp.] and chickpea (Cicer arietinum Linn.) was investigated to
predict probable consequnces of selection for seed size in breeding programmes.
Seeds of 20 pigeionpea varieties with 100-seed weights of 4.5 to 22 g and 23
chickpea varieties with 100-seed weights of 5 to 32 g were sown in the field,
and the leaf area and dry weight of the seedlings were measured at intervals up
to 56 and 30 days respectively. In both species there was a close linear
relationship between 100-seed weight and seedling weight (r = 0.77* for
14-day-old pideonpea; r = 0.82** for 16-day-old chickpea). In pigeonpea the
relationship was even closer (r = 0.95**) when varieties having 100-seed weights
of over 15 g were excluded. With the advancement of growth the closeness of
these relationships declined. Large-seeded varieties of these crops produce
larger and more vigorous seedlings, which will have an advantage in stand
establishment under adverse conditions.
PDF
EFFECTS OF POD EXPOSURE ON THE YIELD OF CHICKPEAS
Field Crops Research, (1980), 3, 180-191
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4290(80)90024-6
by N.P. Saxena and R. Sheldrake
Abstract
Pod photosynthesis is known to contribute to seed filling in a number of legume
crops, and may also be of importance in chickpeas (Cicer arietium L.), which
have green pods possessing stomata. Although the pods of chickpeas are borne in
the leaf axils, they generally hang below the leaves and are consequently more
or less shaded; but a few lines have recently been identified in which the pods
are borne above the leaves. This *exposed pod* character could be incorporated
into new cultivars by breeding if it were shown to be of advantage. The effect
on yield and yield components of exposing pods of normal cultivars was
investigated in field experiments at three locations in India: at Hyderabad and
Hissar during the winter season, and in the Lahaul valley in the Himalayas
during the summer season. A significant effect of pod exposure on yield or yield
components was not observed in any of the experiments, except at Hissar where a
slight but significant increase in 100-seed weight was noted. The *exposed pod*
character is unlikely to be of use in breeding for higher yield potentials.
PDF
IRON CHLOROSIS IN CHICKPEA (CICER ARIETINUM L.) GROWN ON HIGH PH CALCAREOUS
VERTISOL
Field Crops Research, (1980), 3, 211-214
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4290%2880%2990029-5
by N. Saxena and A. Sheldrake
Abstract
Genotypic differences exist in the sensitivity of cultivars of chickpea to iron
deficiency. Sensitive cultivars exhibited typical iron deficiency symptoms when
grown on calcareous soils with high pH. FeSO4 sprays (0.5%) corrected deficiency
symptoms and increased yields by up to 50% in cultivars inefficient in iron
utilization, but gave no increase in cultivars that were efficient.
PDF
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND YIELD OF CHICKPEAS IN INDIA
ICRISAT Publications, (1980), 106-120 ref.25
Proceedings of the International Workshop on Chickpea Improvement, Hyderabad,
India, Feb 28 - Mar 2 1979
by R. Sheldrake and N.P. Saxena
Abstract
Research conducted by ICRISAT at Hissar (representative of N. India) and
Hyderabad (representative of peninsular India) on the growth, pod development,
yield components, nutrient uptake, source/sink relationships, fertilizer and
irrigation response, effects of intercropping, apex removal, row orientation,
sowing pattern, plant density and seed size, cv. plasticity and cv. differences
in germination, Fe chlorosis, salinity tolerance, heat tolerance and water
stress response of chickpea is reviewed.
PDF
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHICKPEAS UNDER PROGRESSIVE MOISTURE STRESS
Stress Physiology in Crop Plants, ed. H.Mussell and R.Staples. Wiley, New York,
1979.
by R. Sheldrake and N.P. Saxena
Abstract
PDF
COMPARISONS OF EARLIER- AND LATER-FORMED PODS OF CHICKPEAS (CICER ARIETINUM)
Annals of Botany (1979), 43, 467-473
https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDJOURNALS.AOB.A085657
by R. Sheldrake, N.P. Saxena
Abstract
In chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) flowering and pod development proceed
acropetally. In plants grown under normal field conditions at Hyderabad, in
peninsular India, and at Hissar in north India, at successively apical nodes of
the branches there was a decline in pod number per node, weight per pod, seed
number per pod and/or weight per seed. The percentage of nitrogen in the seeds
was the same in earlier- and later-formed pods at Hyderabad; at Hissar the
later-formed seeds contained a higher percentage. Earlier- and later-formed
flowers contained similar numbers of ovules. The decline in seed number and/or
weight per seed in the later-formed pods of 28 out of 29 cultivars indicated
that pod-filling was limited by the supply of assimilates or other nutrients. By
contrast, in one exceptionally small-seeded cultivar there was no decline in the
number or weight of seeds in later-formed pods, indicating that yield was
limited by 'sink' size.
PDF
COMPARISONS OF EARLIER- AND LATER-FORMED PODS OF PIGEONPEAS (CAJANUS CAJAN)
Annals of Botany (1979), 43, 459-466
by R. Sheldrake, A. Narayanan
Abstract
On branches of indeterminate cultivars of pigeonpea, flowering begins at the
basal nodes and proceeds acropetally; in morphologically determinate cultivars,
flowering begins on the apical racemes and proceeds basipetally. In cultivars of
both types, within the racemes flowering proceeds acropetally. Under normal
conditions more pods are set from earlier-formed flowers than from later-formed
flowers, many of which are shed. Consequently the earlier-formed pods are found
at the more basal nodes of racemes, and in indeterminate cultivars at the more
basal nodes on the branches. The average weight of earlier- and later-formed
pods, collected from the basal and apical nodes of the racemes or of the
branches, was similar; so was the number of seeds per pod, the weight per seed
and the nitrogen content of the seeds. This pattern differs from that found in
most herbaceous legumes, where later-formed pods are smaller, and indicates that
pigeonpeas set fewer pods than they are capable of filling. This behaviour may
be related to the intrinsically perennial nature of pigeonpeas. The comparison
of the weights of earlier-and later-formed pods could provide a simple screening
procedure for identifying plants with an annual nature among existing cultivars
or in breeders' lines.
PDF
THE EFFECTS OF FLOWER REMOVAL ON THE SEED YIELD OF PIGEONPEAS (CAJANUS CAJAN)
Annals of Applied Biology (1979), 91, 383-390
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1744-7348.1979.TB06516.X
by Rupert Sheldrake, A. Narayanan, N. Venkataratnam
Abstract
In field experiments carried out at Hyderabad, India with early and
medium-duration cultivars of Cajanus cajan sown at the normal time, in July,
removal of all flowers and young pods for up to 5 wk had little or no effect on
final yield. The flowering period of the deflowered plants was extended and
their senescence delayed. The plants compensated for the loss of earlier-formed
flowers by setting pods from later-formed flowers; there was relatively little
effect of the deflowering treatments on the number of seeds per pod or weight
per seed. The plants were also able to compensate for the repeated removal of
all flowers and young pods from alternate nodes by setting more pods at the
other nodes.
The removal of flowers from pigeonpeas grown as a winter crop resulted in yield
reductions roughly proportional to the length of the deflowering period,
probably because maturation of these plants was delayed and occurred under
increasingly unfavourable conditions as the weather became hotter.
PDF
GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND NUTRIENT UPTAKE IN PIGEONPEAS (CAJANUS CAJAN)
Journal of Agricultural Science (Cambridge) (1979), 92, 513-526
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859600053752
by Rupert Sheldrake and A. Narayanan
Abstract
The growth and development of two early (Pusa ageti and T-21) and three medium-
duration (ST-1, ICP-1 and HY-3C) cultivars of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) were
compared at Hyderabad, India, in 1974 and 1975; in 1976 cv. ICP-1 was studied.
The pigeonpeas were grown on a Vertisol and on an Alfisol. The crop growth rate
in the first 2 months was low. The maximum rate of 171 kg/ha/day was found in
the fourth month of growth of cv.ICP-1 on Alfisol. The early culitvars, one of
which (cv. Pusa ageti) was morphologically determinate, and the other (cv. T-21)
indeterminate, did not differ in the proportion of dry matter partitioned into
seeds. The mean dry weight of the above- ground parts of the medium cultivars on
Vertisol in 1975 was 8.45 t/ha, including 2.23 t/ha of fallen plant material.
The mean harvest index (ratio of grain dry weight to total plant dry weight) of
these cultivars was 0.24 excluding fallen material and 0.17 taking fallen
material into account. Starch reserves were present in the stems during the
vegetative phase, but disappeared during the reproductive phase. In 1974 the
maximum leaf-area index on Vertisol was 3 and on Alfisol 12.7. The net
assimilation rate tended to decline throughout the growth period, but in the
medium cultivars increased at the end of the reproductive phase, probably
because of photosynthesis in pods walls and stems.
In 1974 and 1975 the growth of roots and distribution of nodules in Vertisol was
investigated by means of soil cores. Roots extended below 150 cm and root growth
continued during the reproductive phase. Most nodules were found within the
first 30 cm of soil, but some were found below 120 cm. In cv. T-21, grown in
brick chambers 150 cm deep, at the time of harvest about three-quarters of the
mass of the roots was found in the first 30 cm, and the shoot:root ratio was
around 4:1.
In 1975 the mean uptake of nitrogen by the medium cultivars on Vertisol was 120
kg/ha, including 34 kg/ha in fallen material. In 1976 the uptake of nitrogen by
cv. ICP-1 was 89 kg/ha on Vertisol and 79 kg/ha on Alfisol, including 32 and 23
kg/ha respectively in fallen material. Nitrogen uptake continued throughout the
growing period. The percentage of nitrogen in stems and leaves declined as the
plants developed and there was a net remobilization of nitrogen from these
organs. The pattern of uptake and remobilization of phosphorus resembled that of
nitrogen. In 1976 the total uptake of phosphorus by cv. ICP-1 on Vertisol was
5.8 kg/ha and on Alfisol 5.0 kg/ha.
The relatively low yields of pigeonpeas result from a restricted partitioning of
dry matter into pods, which may be related to the plants' perennial nature.
PDF
A HYDRODYNAMICAL MODEL OF POD-SET IN PIGEONPEA (CAJUNUS CAJAN)
Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, (1979), 22, 137-143
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
In pigeonpeas (Cajanus cajan), most flowers are shed without setting pods.
Pod-set is reduced by shading, defoliation and the presence of already
developing pods, probably because of the reduced availability of assimilates or
other nutrients. In pigeonpeas, unlike most leguminous crops, the average weight
per pod of earlier and later formed pods is the same; this indicates that
pod-filling is not limited by nutrient supply. Pod-set seems to be controlled in
such a way that fewer pods develop than the plants are capable of filling. These
processes can be represented by a simple working model, in which the assimilate
supply corresponds to water in a reservoir, the axis of a branch or a raceme to
a horizontal tube connected to the reservoir, and pods to containers of limited
volume at a lower level; the connecting tubes between the axis and the 'pods'
have an ascending limb, shorter than the descending limb to the pods, creating a
siphon. 'Pods' can 'set' only when the level of water in the reservoir is higher
than the threshold of the siphon; during the filling of earlier-set 'pods', the
setting of other 'pods' is inhibited by the reduction of pressure within the
axis. This model may provide a crude representation of mass flow within the
phloem from sources to sinks; it also illustrates some of the hydrodynamical
factors involved in competition among sinks.
PDF
PIGEONPEA (CAJANUS CAJAN) AS A WINTER CROP IN PENINSULAR INDIA
Experimental Agriculture, (1979), 15, 91-95
https://doi.org/10.1017/S001447970000925X
by Rupert Sheldrake and A. Narayanan
Abstract
Pigeonpeas (Cajanus cajan) are normally sown in June or July in India, at the
beginning of the monsoon, but trials were carried out at Hyderabad by sowing in
October or November as a winter crop. The duration of the crop, especially of
the *medium* and *late* cultivars, was much reduced. In 1975*76, October-sown
pigeonpeas gave yields comparable to those of the normal season but much lower
yields were produced by planting in November 1975. *Medium* and *late* cultivars
significantly outyielded early ones. Optimum plant populations for winter crops
were 3*5 times higher than are normally used in the monsoon. Pigeonpeas at
relatively high population densities could have considerable potential as a
winter crop in peninsular India.
PDF
THE EXPRESSION AND INFLUENCE ON YIELD OF THE 'DOUBLE-PODDED' CHARACTER IN
CHICKPEAS
Field Crops Research (1978), 1, 243-253
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4290%2878%2990029-1
by R. Sheldrake, N.P. Saxena, L. Krishnamurthy
Abstract
The number and percentage of nodes bearing two pods in 'double-podded' cultivars
of chickpeas growth in northern India (at Hissar) and peninsular India (at
Hyderabad) were compared. At Hissar 11% of the pod-bearing nodes were
double-podded; at Hyderabad 28% were double-podded on early-sown and 49% on
late-sown plants. In all cases the number of double-podded nodes per plant was
similar, but different numbers of single- podded nodes per plant were formed,
depending on the length of the growing season. At Hyderabad the percentage of
double-podded nodes was not significantly affected by population-density nor by
shading the plants throughout the reproductive phase. Partial defoliation of the
plants reduced the percentage of double-podded nodes, as did the removal of all
flowers from the plants for the first two to four weeks of the reproductive
phase. The conversion of 'double-podded' plants to 'single-podded' plants by
cutting off one of the flowers at every double-flowered node had no effect on
yield at a location in the Himalayas where the double-podded character was
poorly expressed, but at Hyderabad the yield of the 'single-podded' plants was
significantly reduced compared with the 'double-podded' controls. The results
indicate that the double-podded character can confer an advantage in yield of
about 6 to 11% under conditions in which the character is well-expressed.
SOME EFFECTS OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE OF PIGEONPEAS: ON THE INCIDENCE OF THE
WILT DISEASE
Tropical Grain Legumes Bulletin, (1978), 11, 24-5
by R Sheldrake, A Narayanan, J Kannaiyan
Full Text — unavailable
Abstract
The symptoms of the pigeonpea wilt (causal fungus: Pusarium udum) generally
appear during the reproductive phase, particularly while pod-filling is taking
place (Mundkur, 1935).
In an off-season crop planted in December 1974 we observed that while there was
a high incidence of wilt during the pod-filling phase of untreated plants,
almost all the plants where pod development had been prevented by the removal of
flowers remained healthy.
Conversely, we found that the incidence of the disease increased when the plants
were defoliated during the reproductive phase. In an experiment carried out on
medium- duration cultivars grown during the normal season (planted in June 1975)
leaves were removed at the time flowering began, and subsequent defoliations
were made as new leaves were produced. Different degrees of defoliation were
employed: 33% (one leaf out of three removed), 50% (alternate leaves removed),
67% (two leaves out of three removed), 75% (three leaves out of four) and 100%
(all leaves removed). We found that, in general, the incidence of the wilt
increased with the severity of defoliation.
A second experiment was carried out on medium-duration plants (56 lines in the
breeders' plots) which had been ratooned at the time of the harvest of the first
flush of pods. These plants regenerated new branches and entered into a second
reproductive phase, during which (on March 1 1976) one row of plants of each
line was completely defoliated and another row was left as a control. Two months
later the plants were scored for wilt. Of the controls, 16 out of 380 plants
(4%) had wilted whereas 174 out of 360 defoliated plants (48%) had wilted.
Defoliation of plants in the ICRISAT patholigists' wilt-sick plot has also been
found to lead to an increase in the incidence of the wilt disease.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON HORMONE PRODUCTION IN PLANTS
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PDF
THE PRODUCTION OF AUXIN BY DYING CELLS
Journal of Experimental Botany (2021) 72, 2288-2300
https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb%2Ferab009
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
In this review, I discuss the possibility that dying cells produce much of the
auxin in vascular plants. The natural auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), is
derived from tryptophan by a two-step pathway via indole pyruvic acid. The first
enzymes in the pathway, tryptophan aminotransferases, have a low affinity for
tryptophan and break it down only when tryptophan levels rise far above normal
intracellular concentrations. Such increases occur when tryptophan is released
from proteins by hydrolytic enzymes as cells autolyse and die. Many sites of
auxin production are in and around dying cells: in differentiating tracheary
elements; in root cap cells; in nutritive tissues that break down in developing
flowers and seeds; in senescent leaves; and in wounds. Living cells also produce
auxin, such as those transformed genetically by the crown gall pathogen. IAA may
first have served as an exogenous indicator of the presence of nutrient-rich
decomposing organic matter, stimulating the production of rhizoids in
bryophytes. As cell death was internalized in bryophytes and in vascular plants,
IAA may have taken on a new role as an endogenous hormone.
PDF
THE PRODUCTION OF HORMONES IN HIGHER PLANTS
Biological Reviews (1973) 48, pp.509-559
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1973.tb01568.x
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
1 Although much is known about the effects of plant hormones and their role in
the control of growth and differentiation, little is known about the way in
which hormone production is itself controlled or about the cellular sites of
hormone synthesis. The literature on hormone production is discussed in this
review in an attempt to shed some light on these problems.
2 The natural auxin of plants, indol-3yl-acetic acid (IAA) is produced by a wide
variety of living organisms. In animals, fungi and bacteria it is formed as a
minor by-product of tryptophan degradation. The pathways of its production
involve either the transamination or the decarboxylation of tryptophan. The
transaminase route is the more important.
3 In higher plants auxin is also produced as a minor breakdown product of
tryptophan, largely via transamination. In some species decarboxylation may
occur but is of minor important. Tryptophan can also be degraded by spontaneous
reaction with oxidation products of certain phenols.
4 The unspecific nature of the enzymes involved in IAA production and the
probable importance of spontaneous, non-enzymic reactions in the degradation of
tryptophan make it unlikely that auxin production from tryptophan can be
regulated with any precision at the enzymic level. The limiting factor fro auxin
production is the availability of tryptophan, which in most cells is present in
insufficient quantities for its degradation to occur to a significant extent.
Tryptophan levels are, however, considerably elevated in cells in which net
protein breakdown is taking place as a result of autolysis.
5 An indole compound, glucobrassicin, occurs in Brassica and a number of other
genera. It breaks down readily to form a variety of products including indole
acetonitrile, which can give rise to IAA. There is, however, no evidence to
indicate that glucobrassicin is a precursor to auxin in vivo.
6 Conjugates of IAA, e.g. IAA-aspartic acid and IAA-glucose, are formed when IAA
is supplied in unphysiologically high amounts to plant tissues. These and other
IAA conjugates occur naturally in developing seeds and fruits. There is no
persuasive evidence for the natural occurrence of IAA-protein complexes.
7 Tissues autolysing during prolonged extraction with ether produce IAA from
tryptophan released by proteolysis. IAA is produced in considerable quantities
by autolysing tissues in vitro.
8 During the senescence of leaves proteolysis results in elevated levels of
tryptophan. Large amounts of auxin are produced by senescent leaves.
9 Coleoptile tips have a vicarious auxin economy related to IAA from the seed.
These move acropetally in the xylem and accumulate at the coleoptile tip. The
production of auxin in coleoptile tips involves the hydrolysis of IAA esters and
the conversion of labile, as yet unidentified compounds, to IAA. There is no
evidence for the de novo synthesis of IAA in coleoptiles.
10 Practically all the other sites of auxin production are sites of both
meristematic activity and cell death. The production of auxin in developing
anthers and fertilized ovaries takes place in the regressing nutritive tissues
(tapetum, nucellus, endosperm) as the cells break down. In shoot tips,
developing leaves, secondarily thickening stems, roots and developing fruits
auxin is produced as a consequence of vascular differentiation; the
differentiation of xylem cells and most fibres involves a complete autolysis of
the cell contents; the differentiation of sieve tubes involves a partial
autolysis. There is no evidence that meristematic cells produce auxin.
11 The lysis ad digestion of cells infected with fungi and bacteria results in
elevated tryptophan levels and the production of auxin. Viral infections reduce
the levels of tryptophan and are associated with reduced levels of auxin.
12 Crown-gall tissues produce auxin. It is suggested that the crown-gall disease
may involve at any given time the death of a minority of the cells which produce
auxin and other hormones as they autolyse; the other cells grow and divide in
response to the hormones.
13 Auxin is produced in soils, particularly those rich in decaying organic
matter, by micro-organisms. This environmental auxin may be important for the
growth of roots.
14 There is no convincing evidence that auxin is a hormone in non-vascular
plants. The induction of rhizoids in liverworts by low concentrations of auxin
can be explained as a response to environmental auxin.
15 Abscisic acid is synthesized from mevalonic acid in living cells. It is
possible that under certain circumstances, abscisic acid or closely related
compounds are formed by the oxidation of carotenoids.
16 The sites of gibberellin production are sites of cell death. It is possible
that precursors of gibberellins, such as kaurene, are oxidized to gibberellins
when cells die.
17 Cytokinins are present in transfer-RNA (tRNA) of animals, fungi, bacteria and
higher plants. They are probably formed in plants by the hydrolysis of tRNA in
autolysing cells. There is evidence that they are also formed in living cells in
root tips.
18 Ethylene is produced in senescent, dying or damaged cells by the breakdown of
methionine.
19 It was shown many years ago that wounded and damaged cells produced
substances which stimulate cell division. It now seems likely that the
production of wound hormones and the normal production of hormones as a
consequence of cell death are two aspects of the same phenomenon. Wounded cells
can produce auxin, gibberellins, cytokinins and ethylene.
20 The control of hormone production in living cells is a biochemical problem
which remains unsolved. The control of production of hormones formed as a
consequence of cell death depends on the control of cell death itself. Cell
death is controlled by hormones which are themselves produced as a consequence
of cell death.
21 In spite of the fact that dying cells are present in all vascular plants, in
all wounded and infected tissues, in certain differentiating tissues in animals,
in cancerous tumours and in developing animal embryos, the biochemistry of cell
death is a subject which has been almost completely ignored. Dying cells are an
important source of hormones in plants; some of the many substances released by
dying cells may also be of physiological significance in animals.
PDF
DO COLEOPTILE TIPS PRODUCE AUXIN?
New Phytol. (1973), 72, 433-447
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-8137.1973.TB04393.X
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
A re-examination of the evidence for auxin production by coleoptile tips reveals
that it is not conclusive and that several important problems remain unresolved.
The possibility that auxin and auxin precursors move acropetally in the xylem
was tested by analysing guttation fluid from intact coleoptiles, decapitated
coleoptiles and primary leaves of Avena sativa. In all cases two zones of auxin
activity were detected on chromatograms of the acidic ether-soluble fraction,
one of which corresponded to the Rf of indol-3-yl acetic acid (IAA). Similar
auxin activity was found in guttation fluid from seedlings of Zea mays, Triticum
aestivum and Hordeum vulgare. Evidence that guttation fluid also contains
alkali-labile auxin complexes was obtained. Experiments on the movement of dyes
and radioactive IAA introduced into the xylem of transpiring or guttating
coleoptiles showed that these substances accumulate at the tip of the
coleoptile, or at the apical region of decapitated coleoptiles. The hypothesis
that IAA and 'inactive' auxins move acropetally in the xylem from the seed to
the coleoptile tip where they accumulate and where the 'inactive auxins' can be
converted to IAA is shown to be consistent with the classical work on
coleoptiles; it can also explain the autonomous curvature of coleoptiles and the
influence of the roots on the auxin contect of coleoptile tips. An analogous
accumulation of auxin probably occurs at the tips of primary leaves. The
anomalous auxin economy of coleoptile tips is discussed.
PDF
AUXIN IN THE CAMBIUM AND ITS DIFFERENTIATING DERIVATIVES
Journal of Experimental Botany (1971), 22, 735-740
https://doi.org/10.1093/JXB%2F22.3.735
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Cambium and differentiating xylem and phloem tissues from the trunks of trees of
Acer pseudoplatanus L., Fraxinus excelsior L., and Populus tremula L. were
extracted with ether and tested for auxin, which was found on chromatograms of
the acidic fraction at an Rf corresponding to that of indol-3yl-acetic acid in
five solvent systems. In addition, small amounts of auxin with a higher Rf in
ammoniacal isopropanol were found in phloem samples. The amounts of auxin were
greatest in xylem samples, less in the cambium, and least in phloem. The
differences, which cannot be explained in terms of differential losses during
extraction and purification, suggest that auxin is actually formed in
differentiating xylem tissue. The significance of these results is discussed.
PDF
THE OCCURRENCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF AUXIN IN THE SUBSTRATA OF BRYOPHYTES
New Phytologist (1971) 70, 519-526
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-8137.1971.TB02553.X
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Auxin was detected in samples of substrata supporting bryophytes in a variety of
locations in both Britain and Malaya. Activity occurred on chromatograms at
zones corresponding to the Rf of indole acetic acid. The range of concentrations
found, 0.4-10.4ug/1, probably represents a two-to five-fold underestimate due to
losses during extraction and purification. The amounts of auxin in samples of
soil on which bryophytes were not growing were within the same range. The
importance of this environmental auxin for the induction of rhizoids in
liverworts and for roots of higher plants is discussed.
PDF
THE PRODUCTION OF AUXIN BY AUTOLYSING TISSUES
Planta, Berlin (1968), 80, 227-236
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00392393
by Rupert Sheldrake, D.H. Northcote
Abstract
Autolysing plant tissues are known to produce auxin when extracted with ether.
It has been shown that autolysing plant, yeast and rat liver tissues produce
auxin in vitro; this suggests that relatively unspecific mechanisms are
involved. Furthermore, sterile plant and animal tissues which have been killed
by freezing and thawing induce nodules of differentiated cells in a previously
undifferentiated callus of Phaseolus vulgaris. The callus tissue is known to
differentiate in response to applied gradients of auxin. Plant and animal
tissues killed by boiling were considerably less effective in inducing
differentiation in the tissue. The evidence indicates that auxin is a normal
product of autolysing cells. It is suggested that dying cells are an important
source of auxin in the plant.
PDF
PRODUCTION OF AUXIN BY DETACHED LEAVES
Nature (1968), 217, 195
https://doi.org/10.1038/217195a0
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
In senescent leaves proteins are hydrolysed to amino-acids and peptides, which
might be expected to release protein-bound auxin and also to provide
considerable amounts of trypotophan which can be converted by many plant tissues
to the auxin indolyl-3-acetic acid (IAA). We have therefore investigated the
concentrations of auxin in senescent leaves.
Mature trifoliate leaves from plant of Phaseolus vulgaris and leaves from young
plants (2-3 weeks old) of Avena sativa were detached and placed with their
petioles or bases in distilled water in the dark at 25° C. In these conditions,
the leaves become senescent and turn yellow. Samples were taken at various times
(at intervals of 1 or 2 days), weighed and stored in the deep freeze until they
were extracted with peroxide-free ether for 3 h at 0° C. The ether extract was
partitioned and the acidic fraction was run on paper chromatograms with
isopropanol : ammonia : water (8:2:1 v/v). The zone corresponding to IAA was
eluted and the auxin was estimated using an Avena coleoptile straight growth
bioassay. The amounts of auxin extracted from the leaves at various times are
shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
It can be seen that in both cases there is a large increase in the amount of
auxin present over a period of 6 days. The amounts measured represent the
resultant of auxin production and auxin destruction: in the case of Avena, after
about the fourth day the rate of destruction exceeds the rate of production. The
fall in total auxin was observed in each of six experiments.
The level of auxin in leaves and petioles is involved in the control of
abscission so the production of auxin by senescent leaves, if it is a general
phenomenon, may be an important factor which so far has been overlooked.
PDF
THE PRODUCTION OF AUXIN BY TOBACCO INTERNODE TISSUES
New Phytologist (1968), 67, 1-13
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-8137.1968.TB05449.X
by Rupert Sheldrake and D. Northcote
Abstract
The formation of callus at the basal end of tobacco internode tissues cultured
on a basic medium has been used as an indication of the presence of auxin within
the tissues. It has been shown in this way that sections of internode are
capable of producing auxin. This production of auxin is related to the continued
activity of the vascular cambium. If cambial activity and vascular
differentiation are eliminated, auxin is no longer produced. When tissues in
which cambial activity and vascular differentiation are taking place are
cultured on a medium containing an inhibitor of polar auxin transport, tri-iodo
benzoic acid, serried ranks of xylem tracheids are formed. It is suggested that
auxin is produced as a consequence of xylem differentiation and the observations
reported in this paper are interpreted in the light of this hypothesis. It is
also suggested that kinins may be produced as a result of xylem and phloem
differentiation, and the possibility that autolysing cells are a major source of
both auxins and kinins in the plant is discussed.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON AUXIN TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
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EFFECTS OF OSMOTIC STRESS ON POLAR AUXIN TRANSPORT IN AVENA MESOCOTYL SECTIONS
Planta 145, 113-117 (1979)
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00388706
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Segments of mesocotyls of Avena sativa L. transported (1-14C) indol-3yl-acetic
acid (IAA)with strictly basipetal polarity. Treatment of the segments with
solutions of sorbitol caused a striking increase in basipetal auxin transport,
which was greatest at concentrations around 0.5M. Similar effects were observed
with mannitol or quebrachitol as osmotica, but with glucose or sucrose the
increases were smaller. Polar transport was still detectable in segments treated
with 1.2M sorbitol. The effects of osmotic stress on the polar transport of
auxin were reversible, but treatment with sorbital solutions more concentrated
than 0.5M reduced the subsequent ability of mesocotyl segments to grow in
response to IAA. The increased transport of auxin in the osmotically stressed
segments could not be explained in terms of an increased uptake from donor
blocks. The velocity of transport declined with higher concentrations of
osmoticum. The reasons for the enhancement of auxin transport by osmotic stress
are not known.
PDF
CARRIER-MEDIATED AUXIN TRANSPORT
Planta (Berl) 118, 101-121 (1974)
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00388387
by P.H. Rubery and R. Sheldrake
Abstract
Auxin (IAA) transport was investigated using crown gall suspension tissue
culture cells. We have shown that auxin can cross the plasmalemma both by
transport of IAA anions on a saturable carrier and by passive (not
carrier-mediated) diffusion of the lipid-soluble undissociated IAA molecules
(pK=4.7). The pH optimum of the carrier for auxin influx is about pH6 and it is
half-saturated by auxin concentrations in the region of a 1-5u-M. We found that
the synthetic auxin, 2,4D specifically inhibited carrier-mediated IAA anion
influx, and possibly also efflux. Other lipid-soluble weak acids which are not
auxins, such as 3,4-dichlorobenzoic acid, had no effect on auxin transport. By
contrast, we found that TIBA, an inhibitor of polar auxin transport in intact
tissue inhibited only the carrier-mediated efflux of IAA.
When the pH outside the cells is maintained below that of the cytoplasm (pH7),
auxin can be accumulated by the cells: In the initial phase of uptake, the
direction of the auxin concentration gradient allows both passive
carrier-mediated anion influx (inhibited by 2,4D) and a passive diffusion of
undissociated acid molecules into the cells. Once inside the cytoplasm, the
undissociated molecules ionise, producing IAA anions, to a greater extent than
in the more acidic extra-cellular environment. Uptake by passive diffusion
continues as long as the extra-cellular concentration of undissociated acid
remains higher than its intra-cellular concentration. Thus, the direction of the
auxin anion concentration gradient is reversed after a short period of uptake
and auxin accumulates within the cells. The carrier is now able to mediate
passive IAA anion efflux (inhibited by TIBA) down this concentration gradient
even though net uptake still proceeds because the carrier is saturable whereas
passive diffusion is not.
Auxin 'secretion' from cells is regarded as a critical step in polar auxin
transport. The evidence which we present is consistent with the view that auxin
'secretion' depends on a passive carrier-mediated efflux of auxin anions which
accumulate within the cells when the extra-cellular pH is below that of the
cytoplasm. The implications of this view for theories of polar auxin transport
are discussed.
PDF
THE POLARITY OF AUXIN TRANSPORT IN INVERTED CUTTINGS
New Phytol (1974) 74, 637-642
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-8137.1974.TB01289.X
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The original, basipetal polarity of auxin transport persisted in the stems of
inverted cuttings of Tagetes, tomato and tobacco in spite of the reversal of the
relative positions of the roots and shoots. No significant acropetal auxin
transport could be detected even after four months growth. These results
indicate that the polarity of newly formed cells in secondarily thickening
internodes is determined by the existing polarity of auxin transport within the
tissues.
PDF
AUXIN TRANSPORT IN SECONDARY TISSUES
Journal of Experimental Botany, Vol.24, No.78, pp. 87-96, February 1973
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Auxin transport was investigated in excised stem segments of Nicotiana tabacum
L. by the agar block technique using (I-14C) indol-3yl-acetic acid (IAA). The
ability of the stems to transport auxin basipetally increased as secondary
development proceeded; by contrast the ability of the pith to transport auxin
declined with age. By separation of the stem tissues it was shown that the great
majority of auxin transport took place in cells associated with the internal
phloem and in cells close to the cambium; in both cases similar velocities of
transport were found (c 5.0 mm h-1 at 22°C). The effects of osmotic gradients on
auxin transport through the internal phloem were investigated. IAA was found by
chromatography to account for practically all the radioactivity in receiver
blocks and ether extracts of stem segments. The significance of these results is
discussed.
PDF
EFFECT OF PH AND SURFACE CHARGE ON CELL UPTAKE OF AUXIN
Nature New Biology 244, 285-288 (1973)
https://doi.org/10.1038/NEWBIO244285A0
by P.H. Rubery and A.R. Sheldrake
Abstract
The uptake of the auxin indol-3-yl acetic acid (IAA) into plant cells is of
interest not only because this compound is a hormone, but also because its
movement across the plasma membrane is probably involved in the polar transport
of auxin. The plasma membrane contains auxin binding sites and may be a primary
site of hormone action.
IAA partitions into non-polar solvents from acidified aqueous solutions because
the undissociated acid is more soluble in such lipid solvents than in water.
There is known to be a passive, non-metabolic component of the uptake of IAA and
of the synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) into plant tissue
which has been ascribed to the diffusion of the undissociated acid across the
plama membrane. A carrier-mediated mechanism for auxin anion uptake is also
possible but has not been conclusively demonstrated.
Uptake by the diffusion mechanism is linearly related to the concentration of
the undissociated acid which is a function of the acid's pK and the pH of the
incubation medium. If the pH of the medium is lower than that of the cells, the
cells accumulate weak acid; the equation requires that the concentration of
undissociated acid should be the same in each compartment. Thus the relation
between the initial rate of uptake and pH should resemble a dissociation curve
with a midpoint at the pK of the weak acid. This prediction is realized for the
uptake of benzoic acid (pK=4.2) by yeast but not by the bacterium Proteus
vularis, when, although the curve is still that of a dissociation, its midpoint
is displaced by 1 pH unit above the pK of benzoic acid. Such displacement seems
fairly widespread. By collating data from ninety experiments on pH dependence of
biological effects of weak acids, a composite curve is obtained relating pH to
log concentration of acid required to give a standard response; the midpoint of
the curve is at a higher pH than the pK. Data on IAA and 2,4-D uptake reveal a
similar effect. Here we suggest an explanation of this displacement which may be
of general biological significance.
PDF
POLAR AUXIN TRANSPORT IN LEAVES OF MONOCOTYLEDONS
Nature (1972), 238, 352-353
https://doi.org/10.1038/238352A0
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Almost nothing is known about the establishment of cellular polarity underlying
the polar auxin transport system of higher plants. Osborne has suggested that
the apical ends of cells derived from an apical meristem by sequential divisions
are younger than the basal ends: their polarity and the basipetal transport of
auxin are due to this age difference. Sachs in his work on regenerating vascular
strands has found that gradients of auxin may be responsible for establishing
the cellular polarity and the subsequent transport of auxin in the direction of
the initial gradient. Shoot tips and expanding dicot leaves contain relatively
high levels of auxin. The basipetal polarity of auxin transport in petioles and
stems is therefore associated with basipetal auxin gradients. In grass
coleoptiles the greatest amounts of auxin are found at the tip, where basipetal
auxin transport is also associated with basipetal auxin gradients."
In monocot leaves which grow by a basal intercalary meristem, the pattern of
cell division and of auxin distribution is more or less the reverse of that
found in shoot tips. Sequential divisions of the basal meristem presumably make
younger the basal ends of cells; and in growing monocot leaves the greatest
amounts of auxin are found at the base. The polarity of auxin transport in
monocot leaves is therefore of considerable interest.
Hertel and Leopold reported that in the primary leaf of Zea mais, auxin
transport was basipetal. No other references to auxin transport in monocot
leaves are available and I therefore tested the leaves of a number of species.
In every case auxin transport was basipetal.
In leaves of young plants of Avena sativa, basipetal auxin transport took place
across the meristematic region at the base of the leaf and also in the leaf
sheath, which grows by a basal meristem. Plants germinated and grown in darkness
yielded similar results. Less auxin transport was found near the leaf tip than
in the younger, more basal parts of the leaf and younger leaves had a greater
ability to transport auxin than older leaves. A decline in the ability of cells
to transport auxin as they grow older has been observed in a number of other
species and tissues.
PDF
RUPERT'S RESEARCH REPORTS AS ROSENHEIM RESEARCH FELLOW
Royal Society Yearbooks for 1971, 1972 and 1973
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON CELL DIFFERENTIATION
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CELLULASE AND CELL DIFFERENTIATION IN ACER PSEUDOPLANTANUS
Planta (1970) 95, 167-178 1-13
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00387248
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Homogenates of differentiating xylem and phloem tissue have higher cellulase
activities than cambial samples; the highest activity is always found in phloem.
Callus tissue, in which no vascular differentiation occurs, contains only low
cellulase activity. The results suggest that cellulase is involved in vascular
differentiation.
Different pH optima of cellulase activity were found: in cambium, xylem and
phloem tissue, cellulase activity with an optimum at about pH 5.9 is
predominantly membrane-bound; it is sedimentable at 100,000 g and releasable by
Triton X-100. The same may be true of activity with an optimum at pH 5.3. Phloem
tissue also contains a soluble, cytoplasmic cellulase of high activity at pH 7.1
and xylem tissue contains cytoplasmic cellulase with an optimum at pH 6.5. Low
cellulase activity with a pH optimum similar to that of xylem homogenates was
found in xylem sap. Cellulase activity in abscission zones increases greatly
just before leaf abscission. Abscission zone cellulase has two pH optima, et 5.3
and 5.9; both activities are increased by Triton treatment of homogenates. The
possible existence of several different cellulases forming part of a cellulase
complex, and the role of the enzymes in hydrolysing wall material during cell
differentiation are discussed.
PDF
A CELLULASE IN HEVEA LATEX
Physiologia Plantarum (1970), 23, 267-77
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1399-3054.1970.TB06416.X
by Rupert Sheldrake, G.F.J. Moir
Abstract
Using a viscometric method of the latex of Hevea brasiliensis was found to
contain a highly active cellulase capable of hydrolysing carboxymethyl
cellulose. The enzyme has a pH optimum of around 6.3. It is present in the serum
of the latex and is not membrane-bound to any significant extent. Similar
cellulase activities were detected in latex from old and new latex vessel rings
and also in latex from regularly tapped vessels and newly tapped vessels. The
possible role of the enzyme in the removal of cell wall material during the
differentiation of latex vessels is discussed.
PDF
CELLULASE IN LATEX AND ITS POSSIBLE SIGNIFICANCE IN CELL DIFFERENTIATION
Planta (Berl.), (1969), 89, 82-4
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00386498
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Cellulase was found to be present in the latex of species with articulated
laticifers but it could not be detected in the latex of species with
non-articulated laticifers. It is suggested that cellulase is involved in the
removal of end walls during the differentiation of articulated laticifers.
PDF
SOME CONSTITUENTS OF XYLEM SAP AND THEIR POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIP TO XYLEM
DIFFERENTIATION
Journal of Experimental Botany, (November 1968), 19 (61), 681-9
https://doi.org/10.1093/JXB%2F19.4.681
by Rupert Sheldrake and D.H. Northcote
Abstract
Bleeding sap of Actinidia chinensis and Betula populifolia and guttation fluid
of Avena sativa were analysed for sugars, amino-acids, auxin, and certain
enzymes. A wide range of amino-acids was found in all three. Auxin was not
detected in the bleeding sap, but was present in Avena guttation fluid (5.1 ug
IAA equivalent/1). 'IAA oxidase', acid phosphatase, ribonuclease,
deoxyribonuclease, and protease were detected in the bleeding sap and guttation
fluid. The possibility that some of the substances found in sap and guttation
fluid are products of autolysing, differentiating xylem cells in the roots is
discussed.
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ON THE AGEING AND DEATH OF CELLS
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CELLULAR SENESCENCE, REJUVENATION AND POTENTIAL IMMORTALITY
Proceedings of the Royal Society B (2022), 289, 20212434
https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2434
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Ageing, death, and potential immortality lie at the heart of biology, but two
seemingly incompatible paradigms coexist in different research communities and
have done since the nineteenth century. The universal senescence paradigm sees
senescence as inevitable in all cells. Damage accumulates. The potential
immortality paradigm sees some cells as potentially immortal, especially
unicellular organisms, germ cells and cancerous cells. Recent research with
animal cells, yeasts and bacteria show that damaged cell constituents do in fact
build up, but can be diluted by growth and cell division, especially by
asymmetric cell division. By contrast, mammalian embryonic stem cells and many
cancerous and ‘immortalized’ cell lines divide symmetrically, and yet replicate
indefinitely. How do they acquire their potential immortality? I suggest they
are rejuvenated by excreting damaged cell constituents in extracellular
vesicles. If so, our understanding of cellular senescence, rejuvenation and
potential immortality could be brought together in a new synthesis, which I call
the cellular rejuvenation hypothesis: damaged cell constituents build up in all
cells, but cells can be rejuvenated either by growth and cell division or, in
‘immortal’ cell lines, by excreting damaged cell constituents. In electronic
supplementary material, appendix, I outline nine ways in which this hypothesis
could be tested.
Full Text PDF
THE AGEING, GROWTH AND DEATH OF CELLS
Nature, Vol. 250, No. 5465, pp. 381-385, August 2nd 1974
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
The ageing and death of cells in higher plants and higher animals are discussed
in relation to cellular rejuvenation by growth and division. The full text
article is available for download in the the following formats.
PDF
DEATH
Theoria to Theory 7, 31-38 (1973)
by Rupert Sheldrake
Abstract
Death is out of fashion, rarely discussed forgotten as much as it can be. It is
too close to us all. But however much or little we may choose to think about our
own inevitable mortality, death is a fact of life which must be considered by
any science of life. But even within biology death has been more or less
ignored. I think that this has imposed a great limitation on our understanding
of life itself.
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