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> Linguistics 105 * Words and Sounds Lecture Number Twenty One Tracking
> Linguistic Drift: The Comparative Method
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> 
> 
>  I. Linguistic Drift
>     
>     
>     
>     A. Causes
>        1. Imperfect transfer between generations
>        2. Heavy lexical borrowing: English /—/: garage, rouge, arbitrage
>        3. Foreign accents (from heavy immigration)
>        
>        
>     
>     B. Phonological Change
>        1. Syncope:
>           
>           
>           
>           courtesycurtsy aeroplane airplane camera [kÀmrÏ] Latin fem[i]na
>           French femme Latin num[e]rumFrench nombre
>           
>           
>           
>           
>        
>        2. Haplology: probably : probly
>           
>           
>        
>        3. Phonesthemes (or blends):
>           
>           
>           
>           glow + beam gleam glow + twitter glitter glow +stare glare
>           
>           
>           
>           
>        
>        4. Epenthesis:
>           
>           
>           
>           Latin Spanish French scola escuela ec²le stella estrella et²ile
>           status estado etæt
>           
>           
>           
>           
>        
>        5. Lenition:
>           
>           
>           
>           Latin French vitellus 'calf' veaux Latin vita 'life' French vie
>           Latin pater 'father' French pÕre Latin nativum 'native' French na®f
>           'naive'
>           
>           
>           
>           
>        
>        6. Metathesis (especially liquids):
>           
>           
>           
>           English gard-enSerbian grad 'city' German bergSerbian breg 'shore,
>           bank' Latin plen-usRussian poln-yj
>           
>           
>           
>           
>        
>        7. Tendency to Open Syllables (ending on vowels); e.g., French:
>           
>           
>           
>           long cabinet veaux (veal) dans les vous
>           
>           
>        
>        
>     
>     C. Morphological Change
>        
>        
>        
>        1. Analogical Leveling:
>           a. Russian: Nominative-Accusative okno
>           b. English:
>              
>              
>              
>              help : holp : holpen help : helped : helped get : got : gotten
>              get : got : got prove : proved : proven prove : proved : proved
>              
>              
>              
>              
>        2. Bilingual speaker, e.g. French influence on English more beautiful
>        
>        
>     
>     D. Syntactic Change and its Causes
>        1. Loss of case system frees prepositions
>        
>           The bed in which he slept The bed he slept in John looked up a
>           friend in New York John looked a friend in New York up
>        
>           
>        
>        2. Case loss also makes word order more important
>           
>           Ivan udaril Borisa John hit Boris Borisa udaril Ivan Boris hit John
>        
>        
>     
>     E. Semantic Change and its Causes
>        1. Semantic Narrowing
>           a. Red Square: Russian krasnyj = "colorful > "red"
>           b. drugs, disease, deer, meat, golden
>           c. dress > to dress "put on clothes"
>           d. dress > a dress
>        2. Semantic Broadening:
>           a. holy day > holiday
>           b. Lady > lady
>           c. a park > to park "put in park" > "put in any place"
>           d. a ship > to ship "send by ship" > "send (large object)", ship by
>              bus
>        3. Pejoration:
>           a. drugs
>           b. dope(head)
>           c. wench
>           d. silly
>           e. disease
>           f. (not to mention the words for 'cat' and 'rooster')
>           
>           
>        
>        4. Amelioration:
>           a. pretty 'sly, cunning'
>           b. knight 'boy'
>           
>           
>        
>        5. Metaphorical drift:
>           a. Drive carefully, the road is oily (has oil > is slippery)
>           b. Look out for him, he's an oily character (is slippery >
>              untrustworthy)
>     F. Lexical Change and its Causes
>        1. Loss:
>           dolgbot 'compensation for wounding someone'
>           flytme 'blood-letting instrument'
>           þeox: 'hunting spear'
>        2. Borrowing
>           a. Words:
>              * HINDI: thug, punch, cummerbund, shampoo
>              * ARABIC: algebra, orange (narange)
>              * SLAVIC: robot, polka, galoshes;
>              * FRENCH: tax, revenue, government, parliament, royal, slave,
>                prince, prayer, sermon, religion, chaplain, priest, judge,
>                defendent, jury, evidence, jail, crime, medicine, physician,
>                pharmacy, art, sculpture, fashion, music, literature
>                (boccrÀft), poetry
>              * SCANDINAVIAN: anger, cake, call, egg, fellow, get, his, sky,
>                husband, low, ski, they, their, ugly, window, wing, raise,
>                root, score
>              * AMERINDIAN: toboggan, opossum, wigwam, chipmunk, muskrat,
>                tobacco, potato, chili, coyote (coyotl)
>           b. Calques (particularly in Latin, Greek, Russian, German):
>              * German ãbermensch > superman
>              * Latinate compassion > Russian sostradanie, influence >
>                v-li-anie
>              * Greek sympathy > Russian soñuvstvie, English feel for
>        3. Taboo words:
>           a. cock(erel) [clipping] > rooster
>           b. urs > medv-ed 'honey-eater' (Eng mead)
>           c. crap, tinkle, doo-doo, whiz
>           d. "p" > pee (Initialism, initialization)
>           e. pissed off > "p"-ed off > teed off (golf)
>           f. gee, gee whiz, golly, gosh, darn
>        4. Folk etymology:
>           a. crevise > crayfish > craw(l)fish
>           b. chaise longue > chaise lounge (French)
>           c. outr-age > out-rage (French)
>           d. m'aidez > May Day! (French)
>           e. mousseron > mushroom (French)
>           f. berfrey "bell-tower" > belfry
>           g. bride-gome "bride-man" from bryd and guma > bridegroom
>           h. musquash (Algonquian) > muskrat
>           i. otchek (Algonquian) > woodchuck
>        5. Lexical Stock Expansion
>           a. Commonization: a watt, an ohm, a quisling, malapropism
>           b. Clipping: van, flu, phone
>           c. Phrase Reduction:
>              * jet propelled airplane > jet
>              * toboggan cap > toboggan
>           d. Blends: motor + hotel > motel
>              * smoke + fog > smog
>              * happening + circumstance > happenstance
>              * melt + weld > meld
>              * guess + estimate > guesstimate
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