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Submitted URL: https://myshare11.ws/
Effective URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil
Submission: On November 21 via api from BE — Scanned from DE
Effective URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil
Submission: On November 21 via api from BE — Scanned from DE
Form analysis 7 forms found in the DOM
POST
<form method="post" class="wmde-banner-sub-form wmde-banner-sub-form-donation" is-current="true">
<fieldset class="wmde-banner-form-field-group">
<legend class="wmde-banner-form-field-group-legend">I will donate:</legend>
<div class="wmde-banner-select-group-container select-interval">
<div class="wmde-banner-select-group">
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</div><span class="wmde-banner-select-group-error-message"><span class="wmde-banner-error-icon">How often would you like to donate?</span></span>
</div>
</fieldset>
<fieldset class="wmde-banner-form-field-group">
<legend class="wmde-banner-form-field-group-legend">Amount:</legend>
<div class="wmde-banner-select-group-container select-amount">
<div class="wmde-banner-select-group">
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<div class="wmde-banner-select-group-option amount-25"><label><input type="radio" name="select-amount" class="wmde-banner-select-group-input" value="25"><span class="wmde-banner-select-group-label">€25</span></label><!--v-if--></div>
<div class="wmde-banner-select-group-option amount-50"><label><input type="radio" name="select-amount" class="wmde-banner-select-group-input" value="50"><span class="wmde-banner-select-group-label">€50</span></label><!--v-if--></div>
<div class="wmde-banner-select-group-option amount-100"><label><input type="radio" name="select-amount" class="wmde-banner-select-group-input" value="100"><span class="wmde-banner-select-group-label">€100</span></label><!--v-if--></div><label
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</div><span class="wmde-banner-select-group-error-message"><span class="wmde-banner-error-icon">How much would you like to donate?</span></span>
</div>
</fieldset>
<fieldset class="wmde-banner-form-field-group">
<legend class="wmde-banner-form-field-group-legend">Using:</legend>
<div class="wmde-banner-select-group-container select-payment-method">
<div class="wmde-banner-select-group">
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<title>PayPal Logo</title>
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<div class="wmde-banner-select-group-option payment-mcp"><label><input type="radio" name="select-payment-method" class="wmde-banner-select-group-input" value="MCP"><span class="wmde-banner-select-group-label with-logos credit-cards"><svg
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<title>Visa Logo</title>
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November 21st, 7:25 am: “The internet we were promised“ - An important update
for readers in Germany.
You deserve an explanation, so please don't skip this 1-minute read. It's
Thursday, November 21st, and this message will be up only briefly. Please
reflect on how often you've visited Wikipedia this year and if you're able to
give €5 back. If everyone reading this gave €5, we'd hit our goal in a few
hours.
The internet we were promised—a place of free, collaborative, and accessible
knowledge—is under constant threat. On Wikipedia, volunteers work together to
create and verify the pages you rely on, supported by tools that undo vandalism
within minutes, ensuring the information you seek is trustworthy.
Just 1% of our readers donate, so if you have given in the past and Wikipedia
still provides you with €5 worth of knowledge, donate today. If you are
undecided, remember any contribution helps, whether it's €5 or €25. Thank you.
€4.2M
Donation target: €9.3M
€4.2M
€9.3M
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Every year we are dependent on the support of people like you. Yearly donations
help sustainably and enable long term development.
No risks attached, you can tell us to stop at any time.
No, I'll donate €0 one time.Yes, I'll donate €0 each year.
Donation account:
Wikimedia e. V.
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DE09 3702 0500 0003 2873 00
I've already donated
Where does my donation go?
WHERE DOES MY DONATION GO?*
It is for a Wikipedia that is always reliable in terms of organizational and
technical aspects, now and in the future. For free access to encyclopedic,
trustworthy knowledge at all times and wherever you are. It is also for you –
and for all other people around the world.
Infrastructure 20.4%
The technical, social, and financial infrastructure of free knowledge should be
resilient and sustainable. With the greatest possible participation of the
various communities, we shall work to create, maintain, and develop essential
elements of this infrastructure as well as potentially no longer supporting less
forward-looking and sustainable aspects.
International and Technology 34.1%
Wikipedia is a global project. Therefore, we make a substantial contribution to
funding the international activities that develop Wikipedia further. In this
way, we also co-fund the global server infrastructure to run all Wikimedia
projects, including Wikipedia in German.
Community Support 10.6%
We want to nurture and strengthen communities within the free knowledge network
that share our vision and values. Toward this goal we shall support existing
communities and encourage many more people to join them.
Diversity and Participation 5.1%
We want to make it possible for more people from structurally disadvantaged
groups, who have experienced discrimination caused by societal power structures,
to meaningfully participate in all areas of our work. By breaking down barriers
that currently prevent participation, we intend to fulfill our obligation as an
influential player in the network of free knowledge.
Usage and Access 3.8%
We want to see the content of Wikimedia projects used much more by many more
people. At the same time, we want to pave the way toward easier and more
equitable access to this content.
Society 4.8%
We shall bring more decision-makers in politics and society to use their skills
and influence to create a world in which all people can freely share in the sum
of all knowledge.
Operating Costs 21.2%
The people in our Berlin team make sure that the organizational and financial
processes run reliably. One aspect of their work is to raise public awareness
for our projects. And they process all incoming donations and send out the
donation receipts.
The annual plans of Wikimedia Deutschland and the Wikimedia Foundation provide a
detailed insight into our international activities and our activities in
Germany.
HOW YOUR DONATION MAKES A DIFFERENCE
* Your donation is a vital contribution to provide everybody around the world
with free access to knowledge at all times.
* Your donation is a contribution to maintaining Wikipedia’s secure and stable
infrastructure and user-friendly interface in the future.
* Your donation backs our efforts to promote the global establishment of
regional Wikipedia communities.
* Your donation is our most important source of income. It ensures that
Wikipedia can remain independent of advertising, commercial interests or
third-party funding.
* Last, but not least, your donation is your contribution towards making sure
you always have Wikipedia at your fingertips as your personal source of
knowledge, offering a uniquely wide range of information to help you find
answers to your questions.
WHY WE ONLY NEED €9,300,000
Our goal to reach €9.3 million in donations is an important part of our total
planned revenue for 2025. Without a doubt, this is a lot of money.
However, if you consider that Wikipedia ranks as the fifth most visited website
worldwide, this figure is put into perspective. Because compared to other top
websites, we only need an extraordinarily small budget to cover our running
costs and for investments into the future. The only reason why this is possible
is because Wikipedia does not pursue a “business model”, all contributions to
Wikipedia are written by volunteers and we only have around 900 members of staff
worldwide. In addition, we are a non-profit organization, which obliges us to
handle our revenue responsibly and efficiently.
ANNUAL REVENUE – A COMPARISON
* Google $306bSource
* Amazon $575bSource
* Facebook $135bSource
* Wikipedia $0.21b
WHO RECEIVES THE DONATIONS FOR WIKIPEDIA?
Donations from Germany go to Wikimedia Deutschland in Berlin. Since our founding
in 2004, we have been promoting Wikipedia and Free Knowledge in Germany. As a
non-profit association, we are entitled to issue tax-deductible donations
receipts and to carry out the Wikipedia donation campaign.
A portion of the donation is forwarded to the Wikimedia Foundation , a
non-profit organisation that operates and develops Wikipedia and related
projects worldwide.
Donate now
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CONTENTS
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* (Top)
* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
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* 2.1 Pre-Cabraline era
* 2.2 Portuguese colonization
* 2.3 Elevation to kingdom
* 2.4 Independent empire
* 2.5 Early republic
* 2.6 Contemporary era
* 3 Geography
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* 7 Culture
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* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Bibliography
* 12 Further reading
* 13 External links
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Coordinates: 10°S 52°W / 10°S 52°W / -10; -52
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Country in South America
"Brazilian Republic" redirects here. For other uses, see Brazil (disambiguation)
and Brazilian Republic (disambiguation).
"Brasil" redirects here. For the phantom island, see Brasil (mythical island).
Federative Republic of Brazil
República Federativa do Brasil
Flag
Coat of arms
Motto:
Ordem e Progresso
"Order and Progress"Anthem:
Hino Nacional Brasileiro
"Brazilian National Anthem"
Duration: 3 minutes and 22 seconds.3:22
Flag anthem:
Hino à Bandeira Nacional[1]
"National Flag Anthem"
Duration: 4 minutes and 3 seconds.4:03
National Seal
* Selo Nacional do Brasil
National Seal of Brazil
CapitalBrasília
15°47′S 47°52′W / 15.783°S 47.867°W / -15.783; -47.867Largest citySão Paulo
23°33′S 46°38′W / 23.550°S 46.633°W / -23.550; -46.633Official language
and national languagePortugueseRecognized regional languagesSee regional
official languagesEthnic groups
(2022)[2]
* 45.3% Pardo
* 43.5% White
* 10.2% Black
* 0.6% Indigenous
* 0.4% East Asian[a]
Religion
(2022)[3][4]
* 79% Christianity
* 51% Catholicism
* 28% Protestantism
* 12% no religion
* 5% other religions
* Spiritism
* Umbanda
* Candomblé, etc.
Demonym(s)BrazilianGovernmentFederal presidential republic
• President
Lula da Silva
• Vice President
Geraldo Alckmin
• President of the
Chamber of Deputies
Arthur Lira
• President of the
Federal Senate
Rodrigo Pacheco
• President of the
Supreme Federal Court
Luís Roberto Barroso LegislatureNational Congress
• Upper house
Federal Senate
• Lower house
Chamber of DeputiesIndependence
from Portugal
• Declared
7 September 1822
• Recognized
29 August 1825
• Republic
15 November 1889
• Current constitution
5 October 1988 Area
• Total
8,515,767 km2 (3,287,956 sq mi) (5th)
• Water (%)
0.65Population
• 2022 census
203,080,756[5] (7th)
• Density
23.8[6]/km2 (61.6/sq mi) (193rd)GDP (PPP)2024 estimate
• Total
$4.702 trillion[7] (8th)
• Per capita
$22,122[7] (78th)GDP (nominal)2024 estimate
• Total
$2.188 trillion[7] (8th)
• Per capita
$10,296[7] (78th)Gini (2022) 52[8]
high inequalityHDI (2022) 0.760[9]
high (89th)CurrencyReal (R$) (BRL)Time zoneUTC−2 to −5 (BRT)DST is not
observed.Date formatdd/mm/yyyy (CE)Drives onrightCalling code+55ISO 3166
codeBRInternet TLD.br
Brazil,[b] officially the Federative Republic of Brazil,[c] is the largest and
easternmost country in South America and Latin America. It is the world's
fifth-largest country by area and the seventh most populous. Its capital is
Brasília, and its most populous city is São Paulo. Brazil is a federation
composed of 26 states and a Federal District. It is the only country in the
Americas where Portuguese is an official language.[11][12] Brazil is among the
world's most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations, due to over a century
of mass immigration from around the world.[13]
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491
kilometers (4,655 mi).[14] Covering roughly half of South America's land area,
it borders all other countries and territories on the continent except Ecuador
and Chile.[15] Brazil's Amazon basin includes a vast tropical forest home to
diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural
resources spanning numerous protected habitats.[14] This unique environmental
heritage positions Brazil at number one of 17 megadiverse countries. The
country's natural richness is also the subject of significant global interest,
as environmental degradation (through processes such as deforestation) has
direct impacts on global issues such as climate change and biodiversity loss.
The territory of present-day Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations
prior to the landing of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500. Subsequently
claimed by the Portuguese Empire, Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until
1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de
Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the
formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a
unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary
system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation
of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. Slavery was
abolished in 1888. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following
a military coup d'état. An authoritarian military dictatorship emerged in 1964
and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current
constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal
republic.[16] Due to its rich culture and history, the country ranks thirteenth
in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[17]
Brazil is a regional and middle power[18][19][20] that is an emerging
power[21][22][23][24] and a major non-NATO ally of the United States.[25]
Categorized as a developing country and ranking 89th on the Human Development
Index,[26] Brazil is considered an advanced emerging economy,[27] having the
eighth largest GDP in the world in both nominal and PPP terms—the largest in
Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere.[7][28] Classified as an upper-middle
income economy by the World Bank,[29] and a newly industrialized country by the
IMF,[30] Brazil has the largest share of wealth and the most complex economy in
South America. It is also one of the world's major breadbaskets, being the
largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.[31] Despite its growing
economic and global profile, the country continues to face high levels of
corruption, crime and social inequality. Brazil is a founding member of the
United Nations, the G20, BRICS, G4, Mercosul, Organization of American States,
Organization of Ibero-American States and the Community of Portuguese Language
Countries and also an observer state of the Arab League.[32]
ETYMOLOGY
Main article: Name of Brazil
The word Brazil probably comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree
that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast.[33] In Portuguese,
brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the
etymology "red like an ember", formed from brasa ('ember') and the suffix -il
(from -iculum or -ilium).[34] It has alternatively been suggested that this is a
folk etymology for a word for the plant related to an Arabic or Asian word for a
red plant.[35] As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by
the European textile industry and was the earliest commercially exploited
product from Brazil.[36] Throughout the 16th century, massive amounts of
brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the
Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but
also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods.[37]
The official Portuguese name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was
the "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz),[38] but European sailors and
merchants commonly called it the "Land of Brazil" (Terra do Brasil) because of
the brazilwood trade.[39] The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually
supplanted the official Portuguese name. Some early sailors called it the "Land
of Parrots".[40]
In the Guaraní language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called
"Pindorama", meaning 'land of the palm trees'.[41]
HISTORY
Main article: History of Brazil
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Brazilian history.
PRE-CABRALINE ERA
Main article: Pre-Cabraline history of Brazil
See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil and Marajoara culture
Rock art at Serra da Capivara National Park, one of the largest and oldest
concentrations of prehistoric sites in the Americas[42]
Some of the earliest human remains found in the Americas, Luzia Woman, were
found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human
habitation going back at least 11,000 years.[43][44] The earliest pottery ever
found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and
radiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near
Santarém and provides evidence that the region supported a complex prehistoric
culture.[45] The Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó in the Amazon delta from
AD 400 to 1400, developing sophisticated pottery, social stratification, large
populations, mound building, and complex social formations such as
chiefdoms.[46]
Around the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil
had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people,[47] mostly
semi-nomadic, who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant
agriculture. The population comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups
(e.g., the Tupis, Guaranis, Gês, and Arawaks). The Tupi people were subdivided
into the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás.[48]
Before the arrival of the Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and
their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture,
language and moral beliefs.[49] These wars also involved large-scale military
actions on land and water, with cannibalistic rituals on prisoners of
war.[50][51] While heredity had some weight, leadership was a status more won
over time than assigned in succession ceremonies and conventions.[49] Slavery
among the indigenous groups had a different meaning than it had for Europeans,
since it originated from a diverse socioeconomic organization, in which
asymmetries were translated into kinship relations.[52]
PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION
Main articles: Colonial Brazil and Portuguese Empire
See also: Slavery in Brazil, War of the Emboabas, and Minas Gerais Conspiracy
Pedro Álvares Cabral landing in Porto Seguro in 1500, ushering in more than 300
years of Portuguese rule
Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, was the center of the Brazilian Gold Rush and was
designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO due to its Baroque colonial
architecture.
Execution of the Punishment of the Whip by Jean-Baptiste Debret. Nearly 5
million enslaved Africans were imported to Brazil during the Atlantic slave
trade, more than any country.[53]
Following the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, the land now called Brazil was claimed
for the Portuguese Empire on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese
fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral.[54] The Portuguese encountered
indigenous peoples divided into several ethnic societies, most of whom spoke
languages of the Tupi–Guarani family and fought among themselves.[55] Though the
first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization effectively began in 1534,
when King John III of Portugal divided the territory into the fifteen private
and autonomous captaincies.[56][57]
However, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincies proved
problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the
Governorate General of Brazil in the city of Salvador, which became the capital
of a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America.[57][58] In the
first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in
constant war, establishing opportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages
against each other.[59][60][61][62]
By the mid-16th century, cane sugar had become Brazil's most important
export,[55][63] while slaves purchased in Sub-Saharan Africa in the slave market
of Western Africa[64] (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies
in Angola and Mozambique), had become its largest import,[65][66] to cope with
sugarcane plantations, due to increasing international demand for Brazilian
sugar.[67][68] Brazil received more than 2.8 million slaves from Africa between
the years 1500 and 1800.[69]
By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline[70] and the
discovery of gold by bandeirantes in the 1690s would become the new backbone of
the colony's economy, fostering a gold rush[71] which attracted thousands of new
settlers to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the
world.[72] This increased level of immigration in turn caused some conflicts
between newcomers and old settlers.[73]
Portuguese expeditions known as bandeiras gradually expanded Brazil's original
colonial frontiers in South America to its approximately current
borders.[74][75] In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of
Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguese had to fight, notably the French in
Rio during the 1560s, in Maranhão during the 1610s, and the Dutch in Bahia and
Pernambuco, during the Dutch–Portuguese War, after the end of Iberian Union.[76]
The Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would
ensure colonial order and the monopoly of Portugal's wealthiest and largest
colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of slave rebellion and
resistance, such as the Quilombo of Palmares,[77] and to repress all movements
for autonomy or independence, such as the Minas Gerais Conspiracy.[78]
ELEVATION TO KINGDOM
Main article: United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
See also: Invasion of Portugal (1807) and Transfer of the Portuguese court to
Brazil
The Acclamation of King João VI of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and
the Algarves in Rio de Janeiro, 6 February 1818
In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of
continental Portugal, causing Prince Regent John, in the name of Queen Maria I,
to move the royal court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro.[79] There they
established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local
stock exchanges[80] and its National Bank, additionally ending the Portuguese
monopoly on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil's ports to other nations. In
1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the
conquest of French Guiana.[81]
With the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that
Queen Maria I and Prince Regent John return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for
the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony. In 1815, to
justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for six
years, the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the
Algarves, thus creating a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state.[82]
However, the leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger
colony, continued to demand the return of the court to Lisbon (see Liberal
Revolution of 1820). In 1821, acceding to the demands of revolutionaries who had
taken the city of Porto,[83] John VI departed for Lisbon. There he swore an oath
to the new constitution, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent
of the Kingdom of Brazil.[84]
INDEPENDENT EMPIRE
Main articles: Independence of Brazil and Empire of Brazil
Declaration of the Brazilian independence by Pedro I on 7 September 1822
Tensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased and the Portuguese Cortes,
guided by the new political regime imposed by the Liberal Revolution, tried to
re-establish Brazil as a colony.[85] The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince
Pedro decided to stand with them, declaring the country's independence from
Portugal on 7 September 1822.[86] A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the
first Emperor of Brazil, with the royal title of Dom Pedro I, resulting in the
founding of the Empire of Brazil.[87]
The Brazilian War of Independence, which had already begun along this process,
spread through the northern, northeastern regions and in the Cisplatina
province.[88] The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824;[89]
Portugal officially recognized Brazilian independence on 29 August 1825.[90]
On 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political
dissent with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an
attempt of republican secession[91] and unreconciled to the way that absolutists
in Portugal had given in the succession of King John VI, Pedro I departed for
Portugal to reclaim his daughter's crown after abdicating the Brazilian throne
in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (Dom Pedro II).[92]
Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil between 1831 and 1889
As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of
age, a regency was set up by the National Assembly.[93] In the absence of a
charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this
period a series of localized rebellions took place, such as the Cabanagem in
Grão-Pará, the Malê Revolt in Salvador, the Balaiada (Maranhão), the Sabinada
(Bahia), and the Ragamuffin War, which began in Rio Grande do Sul and was
supported by Giuseppe Garibaldi. These emerged from the provinces'
dissatisfaction with the central power, coupled with old and latent social
tensions peculiar to a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nation
state.[94] This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included
the Praieira revolt in Pernambuco, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s,
years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation
of Pedro II in 1841.[95]
During the last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate centered on the
issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850,[96] as a
result of the British Aberdeen Act and the Eusébio de Queirós Law, but only in
May 1888, after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an
ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution
formally abolished with the approval of the Golden Law.[97]
The foreign-affairs policies of the monarchy dealt with issues with the
countries of the Southern Cone with whom Brazil had borders. Long after the
Cisplatine War that resulted in the independence of Uruguay,[98] Brazil won
three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II: the Platine War,
the Uruguayan War and the devastating Paraguayan War, the largest war effort in
Brazilian history.[99][100]
Although there was no desire among the majority of Brazilians to change the
country's form of government,[101] on 15 November 1889, in disagreement with the
majority of the Imperial Army officers, as well as with rural and financial
elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military
coup.[102] A few days later, the national flag was replaced with a new design
that included the national motto "Ordem e Progresso", influenced by positivism.
15 November is now Republic Day, a national holiday.[103]
EARLY REPUBLIC
Main articles: First Brazilian Republic, Vargas Era, and Second Brazilian
Republic
Proclamation of the Republic, 1893, oil on canvas by Benedito Calixto
Getúlio Vargas (center) during the Revolution of 1930
Brazilian Expeditionary Force in Massarosa, Italy, during WWII
The early republican government was a military dictatorship, with the army
dominating affairs both in Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the
press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power.[104] Not
until 1894, following an economic crisis and a military one, did civilians take
power, remaining there until October 1930.[105][106][107]
In relation to its foreign policy, the country in this first republican period
maintained a relative balance characterized by a success in resolving border
disputes with neighboring countries,[108] only broken by the Acre War
(1899–1902) and its involvement in World War I (1914–1918),[109][110][111]
followed by a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the League of
Nations;[112] Internally, from the crisis of Encilhamento[113][114][115] and the
Navy Revolts,[116] a prolonged cycle of financial, political and social
instability began until the 1920s, keeping the country besieged by various
rebellions, both civilian[117][118][119] and military.[120][121][122]
Little by little, a cycle of general instability sparked by these crises
undermined the regime to such an extent that in the wake of the murder of his
running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas,
supported by most of the military, successfully led the Revolution of
1930.[123][124] Vargas and the military were supposed to assume power
temporarily, but instead closed down Congress, extinguished the Constitution,
ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with his own
supporters.[125][126]
In the 1930s, three attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power
failed. The first was the Constitutionalist Revolution in 1932, led by São
Paulo's oligarchy. The second was a Communist uprising in November 1935, and the
last one a putsch attempt by local fascists in May 1938.[127][128][129] The 1935
uprising created a security crisis in which Congress transferred more power to
the executive branch. The 1937 coup d'état resulted in the cancellation of the
1938 election and formalized Vargas as dictator, beginning the Estado Novo era.
During this period, government brutality and censorship of the press
increased.[130]
During World War II, Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when the country
suffered retaliation by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in a strategic dispute
over the South Atlantic, and, therefore, entered the war on the allied
side.[131][132][133] In addition to its participation in the battle of the
Atlantic, Brazil also sent an expeditionary force to fight in the Italian
campaign.[134]
With the Allied victory in 1945 and the end of the fascist regimes in Europe,
Vargas's position became unsustainable, and he was swiftly overthrown in another
military coup, with democracy "reinstated" by the same army that had ended it 15
years earlier.[135] Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political
crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950.[136][137]
CONTEMPORARY ERA
Main articles: Military dictatorship in Brazil and History of Brazil since 1985
Construction of the National Congress building in Brasília, 1959, during the JK
administration
Several brief interim governments followed Vargas's suicide.[138] Juscelino
Kubitschek became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards
the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises.[139]
The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,[140] but his greatest
achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília,
inaugurated in 1960.[141] Kubitschek's successor, Jânio Quadros, resigned in
1961 less than a year after taking office.[142] His vice-president, João
Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition[143]
and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military
dictatorship.[144]
M41s along the Avenida Presidente Vargas, Rio de Janeiro, in April 1968, during
the military dictatorship
The new regime was intended to be transitory[145] but gradually closed in on
itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth
Institutional Act in 1968.[146] Oppression was not limited to those who resorted
to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional
opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society,[147][148]
inside and outside the country through the infamous "Operation
Condor".[149][150] Like other brutal authoritarian regimes, due to an economic
boom, known as the "economic miracle", the regime reached a peak in popularity
in the early 1970s.[151]
Slowly, however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power had not slowed
the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas.[152] The
inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure
made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by
Generals Ernesto Geisel and Golbery do Couto e Silva.[153] With the enactment of
the Amnesty Law in 1979, Brazil began a slow return to democracy, which was
completed during the 1980s.[95]
Ulysses Guimarães holding the Constitution of 1988
Civilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency. He
became unpopular during his tenure through failure to control the economic
crisis and hyperinflation he inherited from the military regime.[154] Sarney's
unsuccessful government led to the election in 1989 of the almost-unknown
Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in
1992.[155] Collor was succeeded by his vice-president, Itamar Franco, who
appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso
produced a highly successful Plano Real,[156] that, after decades of failed
economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation,
finally stabilized the Brazilian economy.[157][158] Cardoso won the 1994
election, and again in 1998.[159]
The peaceful transition of power from Cardoso to his main opposition leader,
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006), was seen as
proof that Brazil had achieved a long-sought political stability.[160][161]
However, sparked by indignation and frustrations accumulated over decades from
corruption, police brutality, inefficiencies of the political establishment and
public service, numerous peaceful protests erupted in Brazil in the middle of
the first term of Dilma Rousseff, who had succeeded Lula after winning election
in 2010 and again in 2014 by narrow margins.[162][163]
Rousseff was impeached by the Brazilian Congress in 2016, halfway into her
second term,[164][165] and replaced by her Vice-president Michel Temer, who
assumed full presidential powers after Rousseff's impeachment was accepted on 31
August. Large street protests for and against her took place during the
impeachment process.[166] The charges against her were fueled by political and
economic crises along with evidence of involvement with politicians from all the
primary political parties. In 2017, the Supreme Court requested the
investigation of 71 Brazilian lawmakers and nine ministers of President Michel
Temer's cabinet who were allegedly linked to the Petrobras corruption
scandal.[167] President Temer himself was also accused of corruption.[168]
According to a 2018 poll, 62% of the population said that corruption was
Brazil's biggest problem.[169]
In the fiercely disputed 2018 elections, the controversial conservative
candidate Jair Bolsonaro of the Social Liberal Party (PSL) was elected
president, winning in the second round against Fernando Haddad, of the Workers
Party (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes.[170] In the early
2020s, Brazil became one of the hardest hit countries during the COVID-19
pandemic, receiving the second-highest death toll worldwide after the United
States.[171] In May 2021, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva stated that he would run for
a third term in the 2022 Brazilian general election against Bolsonaro.[172] In
October 2022, Lula was in first place in the first round, with 48.43% of the
support from the electorate, and received 50.90% of the votes in the second
round.[173][174] On 8 January 2023, a week after Lula's inauguration, a mob of
Bolsonaro's supporters attacked Brazil's federal government buildings in the
capital, Brasília, after several weeks of unrest.[175][176]
GEOGRAPHY
Main article: Geography of Brazil
Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Teresópolis, Rio de Janeiro state
Satellite image of the Amazon Delta
Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and
includes much of the continent's interior,[177] sharing land borders with
Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru
to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and
France (French overseas region of French Guiana) to the north. It shares a
border with every South American country except Ecuador and Chile.[14]
The brazilian territory also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such
as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade
and Martim Vaz.[14] Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil
geographically diverse.[177] Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between
latitudes 6°N and 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.[14]
Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, and third largest in the
Americas, with a total area of 8,515,767.049 km2 (3,287,956 sq mi),[178]
including 55,455 km2 (21,411 sq mi) of water. North to South, Brazil is also the
longest country in the world, spanning 4,395 km (2,731 mi) from north to
south,[14] and the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic
of Capricorn running through it.[14] It spans four time zones; from UTC−5
comprising the state of Acre and the westernmost portion of Amazonas, to UTC−4
in the western states, to UTC−3 in the eastern states (the national time) and
UTC−2 in the Atlantic islands.[179]
CLIMATE
Main article: Climate of Brazil
Brazil map of Köppen climate classification zones
The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a
large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical.[14]
According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts six major climatic subtypes:
desert, equatorial, tropical, semiarid, oceanic and subtropical. The different
climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in
the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests
in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.[180]
In Brazil, forest cover is around 59% of the total land area, equivalent to
496,619,600 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 588,898,000 hectares (ha)
in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 485,396,000 hectares
(ha) and planted forest covered 11,223,600 hectares (ha). Of the naturally
regenerating forest, 44% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native
tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around
30% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For 2015, 56.% of the
forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 44% private
ownership.[181][182]
Many regions have starkly different microclimates.[183][184] An equatorial
climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but
there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.[180]
Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),[184] with more significant temperature
variation between night and day than between seasons.[183] Over central Brazil,
rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.[183] This region
is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies
farther south at a higher altitude.[180] In the interior northeast, seasonal
rainfall is even more extreme.[185] South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more
southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes,
with rain falling throughout the year.[180] The south enjoys subtropical
conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding
18 °C (64.4 °F);[184] winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest
areas.[180][183]
The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 millimeters
(31.5 in) of rain,[185] most of which generally falls in a period of three to
five months of the year[186] and occasionally less than this, creating long
periods of drought.[183] Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst
in Brazil's history,[187] caused approximately half a million deaths.[188] A
similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915.[189] In 2024, for the first
time, "a drought has covered all the way from the North to the country’s
Southeast". It is the strongest drought in Brazil since the beginning of
measurement in the 1950s, covering almost 60% of the country's territory. The
drought is linked to deforestation and climate change.[190][191][192]
TOPOGRAPHY AND HYDROGRAPHY
See also: List of rivers of Brazil
Topographic map of Brazil
Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains,
highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 meters (660 ft)
and 800 meters (2,600 ft) in elevation.[193] The main upland area occupies most
of the southern half of the country.[193] The northwestern parts of the plateau
consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.[193]
The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and
mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 meters (3,900 ft).[193] These
ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do
Mar.[193] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide,
separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty
into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in
Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2,994 meters (9,823 ft), and the lowest is the
Atlantic Ocean.[14]
Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most
extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the
Atlantic.[194] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river
and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary
the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu,
Madeira and Tapajós rivers.[194]
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Main articles: Environment of Brazil, Wildlife of Brazil, and Conservation in
Brazil
Further information: Environmental issues in Brazil and Protected areas of
Brazil
The toco toucan is an animal typical of the Brazilian savannas.
The wildlife of Brazil comprises all naturally occurring animals, plants, and
fungi in the South American country. Home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest, which
accounts for approximately one-tenth of all species in the world,[195] Brazil is
considered to have the greatest biodiversity of any country on the planet,
containing over 70% of all animal and plant species catalogued.[196] Brazil has
the most known species of plants (55,000), freshwater fish (3,000) and mammals
(over 689).[197] It also ranks third on the list of countries with the most bird
species (1,832) and second with the most reptile species (744).[197] The number
of fungal species is unknown but is large.[198] Brazil is second only to
Indonesia as the country with the most endemic species.[199]
Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon
rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the
world,[200] with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado sustaining the greatest
biodiversity.[201] In the south, the Araucaria moist forests grow under
temperate conditions.[201] The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of
natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal
species in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates.[201] Larger
mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes,
and herbivores peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums and armadillos.
Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found
in the northern rain forests.[201][202]
Cumulatively, Brazil has the highest percentage of deforested and degraded
rainforest of any Amazonia nation.[203]
More than one-fifth of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil has been completely
destroyed, and more than 70 mammals are endangered.[197] The threat of
extinction comes from several sources, including deforestation and poaching.
Extinction is even more problematic in the Atlantic Forest, where nearly 93% of
the forest has been cleared.[204] Of the 202 endangered animals in Brazil, 171
are in the Atlantic Forest.[205] The Amazon rainforest has been under direct
threat of deforestation since the 1970s because of rapid economic and
demographic expansion. Extensive legal and illegal logging destroy forests the
size of a small country per year, and with it a diverse series of species
through habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation.[206] Since 1970, over
600,000 square kilometers (230,000 sq mi) of the Amazon rainforest have been
cleared by logging.[207]
In 2017, preserved native vegetation occupied 61% of the Brazilian territory.
Agriculture occupied only 8% of the national territory and pastures 19.7%.[208]
For comparison, in 2019, although 43% of the entire European continent has
forests, only 3% of the total forest area in Europe is of native forest.[209]
Brazil has a strong interest in conservation, as its agriculture sector directly
depends on its forests.[210] In 2020, the government of Brazil pledged to reduce
its annual greenhouse gas emissions by 43% by 2030. It also sets an indicative
target of reaching carbon neutrality by 2060 if the country gets 10 billion
dollars per year.[211]
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Main articles: Politics of Brazil, Federal government of Brazil, and Elections
in Brazil
National Congress, seat of the legislative branch Palácio do Planalto, the
official workplace of the President of Brazil
The form of government is a democratic federative republic, with a presidential
system.[16] The president is both head of state and head of government of the
Union and is elected for a four-year term,[16] with the possibility of
re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Luiz Inácio
Lula da Silva.[212] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in
government.[16]
Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in
Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature,
consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary
authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. In 2021, the
Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index categorized Brazil as a "flawed
democracy", ranking 46th in the report,[213] and Freedom House classified it as
a free country at Freedom in the World report.[214]
The political-administrative organization of the Federative Republic of Brazil
comprises the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the
municipalities.[16] The Union, the states, the Federal District, and the
municipalities, are the "spheres of government". The federation is set on five
fundamental principles: sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the
social values of labor and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism.[16]
The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative and
judicial under a checks and balances system) are formally established by the
Constitution.[16] The executive and legislative are organized independently in
all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the
federal and state and Federal District spheres. All members of the executive and
legislative branches are directly elected.[215][216][217]
For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, with
proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18
and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or
beyond 70.[16] The country has around 30 registered political parties. Twenty
political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to
switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by
particular parties changes regularly.[218]
LAW
Main article: Law of Brazil
Supreme Federal Court of Brazil serves primarily as the Constitutional Court of
the country.
Brazilian law is based on the civil law legal system[219] and civil law concepts
prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although
non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary
role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom
binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic
jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases. Judges and other
judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.[215]
The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, promulgated on 5 October
1988, and the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court
decisions must conform to its rules.[220] As of July 2022[update], there have
been 124 amendments.[221] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court. States
have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal
Constitution.[222] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws"
(leis orgânicas), which act in a similar way to constitutions.[223] Legislative
entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary
and executive bodies may enact legal norms.[16] Jurisdiction is administered by
the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution
allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.[16] There are also
specialized military, labor and electoral courts.[16]
MILITARY
Main article: Brazilian Armed Forces
Brazilian Air Force Saab Gripen NG
Brazilian Navy's flagship PHM Atlântico and frigate Liberal (F-43) (background)
The armed forces of Brazil are the largest in Latin America by active personnel
and the largest in terms of military equipment.[224] The country was considered
the 9th largest military power on the planet in 2021.[225][226] It consists of
the Brazilian Army (including the Army Aviation Command), the Brazilian Navy
(including the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation) and the Brazilian Air Force.
Brazil's conscription policy gives it one of the world's largest military
forces, estimated at more than 1.6 million reservists annually.[227] The Air
Force is the largest in Latin America and has about 700 crewed aircraft in
service and effective about 67,000 personnel.[228]
Numbering close to 236,000 active personnel,[229] the Brazilian Army has the
largest number of armored vehicles in South America, including armored
transports and tanks.[230] The states' Military Police and the Military
Firefighters Corps are described as an ancillary forces of the Army by the
constitution, but are under the control of each state's governor.[16]
Brazil's navy once operated some of the most powerful warships in the world with
the two Minas Geraes-class dreadnoughts, sparking a naval arms race between
Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.[231] Today, it is a green water force and has a
group of specialized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, GRUMEC, unit
specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platforms along its coast.[232] As of
2022[update], it is the only navy in Latin America that operates a helicopter
carrier, NAM Atlântico and one of twelve navies in the world to operate or have
one under construction.[233]
FOREIGN POLICY
Main article: Foreign relations of Brazil
Itamaraty Palace, the seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Brazil's international relations are based on Article 4 of the Federal
Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination,
international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the
guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and
multilateral organizations.[234] According to the Constitution, the President
has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the Congress is tasked with
reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties,
as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.[235]
Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's position as a regional
power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging
world power.[236] Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the
principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention
in the affairs of other countries.[237] Brazil is a founding member state of the
Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone
Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of
Lusophone nations.
An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid
as a donor to other developing countries.[238] Brazil does not just use its
growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high
levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational
diplomacy to improve governance levels.[238] Total aid is estimated to be around
$1 billion per year, which includes.[238] In addition, Brazil already managed a
peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to
the World Food Programme ($300 million).[238] The scale of this aid places it on
par with China and India.[238] The Brazilian South-South aid has been described
as a "global model in waiting".[239]
LAW ENFORCEMENT AND CRIME
Main articles: Law enforcement in Brazil and Crime in Brazil
Headquarters of the Federal Police of Brazil in Brasília
In Brazil, the Constitution establishes six different police agencies for law
enforcement: Federal Police Department, Federal Highway Police, Federal Railroad
Police, Federal, District and State Penal Police (included by the Constitutional
Amendment No. 104, of 2019), Military Police and Civil Police. Of these, the
first three are affiliated with federal authorities, the last two are
subordinate to state governments and the Penal Police can be subordinated to the
federal or state/district government. All police forces are overseen by the
executive branch of the federal or state government.[16] The National Public
Security Force also can act in public disorder situations arising anywhere in
the country.[240]
The country has high levels of violent crime, such as gun violence and
homicides. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated the number of
32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest rates of homicide of the
world.[241] The number considered acceptable by the WHO is about 10 homicides
per 100,000 inhabitants.[242] In 2018, Brazil had a record 63,880 murders.[243]
However, there are differences between the crime rates in the Brazilian states.
While in São Paulo the homicide rate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per
100,000 inhabitants, in Alagoas it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000
inhabitants.[244]
Brazil also has high levels of incarceration. It had the third largest prison
population in the world of approximately 700,000 prisoners as of June 2014,
which put it only behind the United States (2,228,424) and China
(1,701,344).[245] The high number of prisoners eventually overloaded the
Brazilian prison system, leading to a shortfall of about 200,000
accommodations.[246]
HUMAN RIGHTS
See also: Human rights in Brazil
Human rights in Brazil include the right to life and freedom of speech; and
condemnation of slavery and torture. The nation ratified the American Convention
on Human Rights.[247] The 2017 Freedom in the World report by Freedom House
gives Brazil a score of "2" for both political rights and civil liberties; "1"
represents the most free, and "7", the least.[248]
However, the following human rights problems have been reported: torture of
detainees and inmates by police and prison security forces; inability to protect
witnesses involved in criminal cases; harsh conditions; prolonged pretrial
detention and inordinate delays of trials; reluctance to prosecute as well as
inefficiency in prosecuting government officials for corruption; violence and
discrimination against women;[249] violence against children, including sexual
abuse; human trafficking; police brutality;[250] discrimination against black
and indigenous people;[251] failure to enforce labour laws; and child labour in
the informal sector. Human rights violators often enjoy impunity.[252] According
to UNESCO, "Brazil promotes a vast array of actions for the advancement and
defense of human rights, even though it faces enormous social and economic
inequalities".[253]
Same-sex couples in Brazil have held nationwide marriage rights since May
2013.[254]
POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS
Main article: Subdivisions of Brazil
Further information: Municipalities of Brazil, States of Brazil, and Regions of
Brazil
Brazil is a federation composed of 26 states, one federal district, and the
5,570 municipalities.[16] States have autonomous administrations, collect their
own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They
have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their
voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite
this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in other
federal states such as the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws
can be voted by only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout
the country.[16]
Atlantic
Ocean
Pacific
Ocean
North
Northeast
Central-West
Southeast
South
Acre
Amazonas
Pará
Roraima
Amapá
Rondônia
Tocantins
Maranhão
Bahia
Piauí
Ceará
Rio Grande
do Norte
Paraíba
Pernambuco
Alagoas
Sergipe
Mato Grosso
Mato Grosso
do Sul
Federal
District
Goiás
Minas Gerais
São Paulo
Rio de Janeiro
Espírito Santo
Paraná
Santa Catarina
Rio Grande
do Sul
Argentina
Bolivia
Chile
Colombia
French Guiana
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their
own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the federal and state
government.[16] Each has an elected mayor and legislative body, but no separate
Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many
municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca
(county).[16]
Brazil's constitution also provides for the creation of federal territories,
which are administrative divisions directly controlled by the federal
government. However, there are currently no federal territories in the country,
as the 1988 Constitution abolished the last three: Amapá and Roraima (which
gained statehood status) and Fernando de Noronha, which became a state district
of Pernambuco.[255][256]
ECONOMY
Main article: Economy of Brazil
See also: Brazilian real, Agriculture in Brazil, Mining in Brazil, and Industry
in Brazil
Paulista Avenue, in São Paulo, is considered the main financial center of Brazil
B3, the largest stock exchange of Latin America by market capitalization[257]
Soybean crop in Tangará da Serra, Mato Grosso[258] The C-390, developed by
Embraer, the third largest producer of civil aircraft, after Boeing and
Airbus[259]
Brazil's upper-middle income mixed market economy is rich in natural
resources.[260] It has the largest national economy in Latin America, the
eighth-largest economy in the world by nominal GDP, and the eighth-largest by
PPP. After rapid growth in preceding decades, the country entered an ongoing
recession in 2014 amid a political corruption scandal and nationwide protests. A
developing country, Brazil has a labor force of roughly 100 million,[261] which
is the world's fifth-largest; with a high unemployment rate of 14.4% as of
2021[update].[262] Its foreign exchange reserves are the tenth-highest in the
world.[263] The B3 in São Paulo is the largest stock exchange of Latin America
by market capitalization. In regards to poverty, about 1.9% of the total
population lives at $2.15 a day,[264] while about 19% live at $6.85 a day.[265]
Brazil's economy suffers from endemic corruption and high income
inequality.[266] The Brazilian real is the national currency.
Brazil's diversified economy includes agriculture, industry and a wide range of
services.[267] The large service sector accounts for about 72.7% of total GDP,
followed by the industrial sector (20.7%), while the agriculture sector is by
far the smallest, making up 6.6% of total GDP.[268]
Brazil is one of the largest producers of various agricultural commodities,[269]
and also has a large cooperative sector that provides 50% of the food in the
country.[270] It has been the world's largest producer of coffee for the last
150 years.[31] Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee
and orange; is one of the top 5 producers of maize, cotton, lemon, tobacco,
pineapple, banana, beans, coconut, watermelon and papaya; and is one of the top
10 world producers of cocoa, cashew, mango, rice, tomato, sorghum, tangerine,
avocado, persimmon, and guava, among others. Regarding livestock, it is one of
the 5 largest producers of chicken meat, beef, pork and cow's milk in the
world.[271] In the mining sector, Brazil is among the largest producers of iron
ore, copper, gold,[272] bauxite, manganese, tin, niobium,[273] and nickel. In
terms of precious stones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst,
topaz, agate and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emerald, aquamarine,
garnet and opal.[274][275] The country is a major exporter of soy, iron ore,
pulp (cellulose), maize, beef, chicken meat, soybean meal, sugar, coffee,
tobacco, cotton, orange juice, footwear, airplanes, cars, vehicle parts, gold,
ethanol and semi-finished iron, among other products.[276][277]
Brazil is the world's 24th-largest exporter and 26th-largest importer as of
2021[update].[278][279] China is its largest trading partner, accounting for 32%
of the total trade. Other large trading partners include the United States,
Argentina, the Netherlands and Canada.[280] Its automotive industry is the
eighth-largest in the world.[281] In the food industry, Brazil was the
second-largest exporter of processed foods in the world in 2019.[282] The
country was the second-largest producer of pulp in the world and the
eighth-largest producer of paper in 2016.[283] In the footwear industry, Brazil
was the fourth-largest producer in 2019.[284] It was also the ninth-largest
producer of steel in the world.[285][286][287] In 2018, the chemical industry of
Brazil was the eighth-largest in the world.[288][289][290] Although it was among
the five largest world producers in 2013, Brazil's textile industry is very
little integrated into world trade.[291]
The tertiary sector (trade and services) represented 75.8% of the country's GDP
in 2018, according to the IBGE. The service sector was responsible for 60% of
GDP and trade for 13%. It covers commerce, transport, education, social and
health services, research and development, sports activities, etc.[292][293]
Micro and small businesses represent 30% of the country's GDP. In the commercial
sector, for example, they represent 53% of the GDP within the activities of the
sector.[294]
TOURISM
Main article: Tourism in Brazil
Iguaçu National Park in Paraná Lençóis Maranhenses National Park in Maranhão
Tourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the economies of several
regions of the country. The country had 6.36 million visitors in 2015, ranking
in terms of the international tourist arrivals as the main destination in South
America and second in Latin America after Mexico.[295] Revenues from
international tourists reached US$6 billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the
2008–2009 economic crisis.[296] Historical records of 5.4 million visitors and
US$6.8 billion in receipts were reached in 2011.[297][298] In the list of world
tourist destinations, in 2018, Brazil was the 48th most visited country, with
6.6 million tourists (and revenues of 5.9 billion dollars).[299]
Natural areas are its most popular tourism product, a combination of ecotourism
with leisure and recreation, mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well
as cultural tourism. Among the most popular destinations are the Amazon
Rainforest, beaches and dunes in the Northeast Region, the Pantanal in the
Center-West Region, beaches at Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, cultural
tourism in Minas Gerais and business trips to São Paulo.[300]
In terms of the 2015 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), which is a
measurement of the factors that make it attractive to develop business in the
travel and tourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked in the 28th
place at the world's level, third in the Americas, after Canada and United
States.[301][302] Domestic tourism is a key market segment for the tourism
industry in Brazil. In 2005, 51 million Brazilian nationals made ten times more
trips than foreign tourists and spent five times more money than their
international counterparts.[303] The main destination states in 2023 were São
Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Rio Grande do Sul.[304][305] The main source of
tourists for the entire country is São Paulo state.[306] In terms of tourism
revenues, the top earners by state were São Paulo and Bahia.[307] For 2005, the
three main trip purposes were visiting friends and family (53.1%), sun and beach
(40.8%), and cultural tourism (12.5%).[308]
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Main article: Science and technology in Brazil
VLS-1 at the Alcântara Launch Center of the Brazilian Space Agency, in
Alcântara, Maranhão Sirius, a diffraction-limited storage ring synchrotron light
source at the Laboratório Nacional de Luz Síncrotron, in Campinas, São Paulo
Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities
and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming
from various government agencies.[309] Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs
are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's
Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and
the National Institute for Space Research.[310][311]
The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America,
with significant resources to launch vehicles, and manufacture of
satellites.[312] The country develops submarines and aircraft, as well as being
involved in space research, having a Vehicle Launch Center Light and being the
only country in the Southern Hemisphere to integrate a team building the
well-known International Space Station (ISS).[313]
The country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deep water, from where it
extracts 73% of its reserves. Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel
Factory, mostly for research purposes (as Brazil obtains 88% of its electricity
from hydroelectricity[314]) and the country's first nuclear submarine is
expected to be launched in 2029.[315]
Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America[316] with an operational
Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material
science and life sciences, and Brazil is the only Latin American country to have
a semiconductor company with its own fabrication plant, the CEITEC.[317]
According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009–2010 of the World
Economic Forum, Brazil is the world's 61st largest developer of information
technology.[318] Brazil was ranked 50th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024,
up from 66th in 2019.[319][320][321]
Among the most renowned Brazilian inventors are priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão,
Landell de Moura and Francisco João de Azevedo, besides Alberto
Santos-Dumont,[322] Evaristo Conrado Engelberg,[323] Manuel Dias de Abreu,[324]
Andreas Pavel[325] and Nélio José Nicolai.[326] Brazilian science is represented
by the likes of César Lattes (Brazilian physicist Pathfinder of Pi Meson),[327]
Mário Schenberg (considered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil),[328]
José Leite Lopes (the only Brazilian physicist holder of the UNESCO Science
Prize),[329] Artur Ávila (the first Latin American winner of the Fields
Medal)[330] and Fritz Müller (pioneer in factual support of the theory of
evolution by Charles Darwin).[331]
ENERGY
Main article: Energy in Brazil
The Itaipu Dam on the Paraná River, the second largest of the world. Brazilian
energy matrix is one of the cleanest in the world Wind farm in Parnaíba, Piauí.
Brazil is one of the 5 largest producers of wind energy in the world
Brazil is the world's ninth-largest energy consumer.[332] Much of its energy
comes from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; the
Itaipu Dam is the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation,[333]
and the country has other large plants such as Belo Monte and Tucuruí. The first
car with an ethanol engine was produced in 1978 and the first airplane engine
running on ethanol in 2005.[334]
At the end of 2021 Brazil was the 2nd country in the world in terms of installed
hydroelectric power (109.4 GW) and biomass (15.8 GW), the 7th country in the
world in terms of installed wind power (21.1 GW) and the 14th country in the
world in terms of installed solar power (13.0 GW)—on track to also become one of
the top 10 in the world in solar energy.[335] At the end of 2021, Brazil was the
4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China,
the United States and Germany, and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in
the world (16.8 TWh).[336]
The main characteristic of the Brazilian energy matrix is that it is much more
renewable than that of the world. While in 2019, the world matrix was only 14%
made up of renewable energy, Brazil's was at 45%. Petroleum and oil products
made up 34.3% of the matrix; sugar cane derivatives, 18%; hydraulic energy,
12.4%; natural gas, 12.2%; firewood and charcoal, 8.8%; varied renewable
energies, 7%; mineral coal, 5.3%; nuclear, 1.4%, and other non-renewable
energies, 0.6%.[337]
In the electric energy matrix, the difference between Brazil and the world is
even greater: while the world only had 25% of renewable electric energy in 2019,
Brazil had 83%. The Brazilian electric matrix was composed of: hydraulic energy,
64.9%; biomass, 8.4%; wind energy, 8.6%; solar energy, 1%; natural gas, 9.3%;
oil products, 2%; nuclear, 2.5%; coal and derivatives, 3.3%.[337] Brazil has the
largest electricity sector in Latin America. Its capacity at the end of 2021 was
181,532 MW.[338]
As for oil, the Brazilian government has embarked on a program over the decades
to reduce dependence on imported oil, which previously accounted for more than
70% of the country's oil needs. Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in
2006–2007. In 2021, the country closed the year as the 7th oil producer in the
world, with an average of close to three million barrels per day, becoming an
exporter of the product.[339][340]
TRANSPORTATION
Main article: Transport in Brazil
Terminal 3 of the São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport, the busiest airport
in South America BR-116 in São José dos Campos, São Paulo, the longest highway
in the country,[341] with 4,542 km (2,822 mi) of extension[342]
Brazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The
road system totaled 1,720,000 km (1,068,758 mi) in 2019.[343] The total of paved
roads increased from 35,496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 215,000 km (133,595 mi) in
2018.[344][345]
Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to
highway construction. The country's total railway track length was 30,576 km
(18,999 mi) in 2015,[346] as compared with 31,848 km (19,789 mi) in 1970, making
it the ninth largest network in the world. Most of the railway system belonged
to the Federal Railroad Network Corporation (RFFSA), which was privatized in
2007.[347] The São Paulo Metro began operating on 14 September 1974 as the first
underground transit system in Brazil.[348]
There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the
second-largest number in the world, after the United States.[349] São
Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and
busiest airport with nearly 43 million passengers annually, while handling the
vast majority of commercial traffic for the country.[350][351]
For freight transport, waterways are of importance. The industrial zones of
Manaus can be reached only by means of the Solimões–Amazonas waterway (3,250
kilometers or 2,020 miles in length, with a minimum depth of six meters or 20
feet). The country also has 50,000 kilometers (31,000 miles) of waterways.[352]
Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and
Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports,
Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape,
Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important.[353] Bulk carriers have
to wait up to 18 days before being serviced; container ships take 36.3 hours on
average.[354]
DEMOGRAPHICS
Main articles: Demographics of Brazil and Brazilians
See also: Immigration to Brazil and List of Brazilian states by population
density
Population density of Brazilian municipalities
According to the latest official projection, it is estimated that Brazil’s
population was 210,862,983 on July 1, 2022—an adjustment of 3.9% from the
initial figure of 203 million reported by the 2022 census.[355] The population
of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million[356]
(22.31 inhabitants per square kilometer or 57.8/sq mi), with a ratio of men to
women of 0.95:1[357] and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.[358] The
population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million
inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two
most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up
64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million
inhabitants.
The first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of
9,930,478.[359] From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived.[360] Brazil's
population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, because of a decline
in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In
the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the
1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54
years[361] and to 72.6 years in 2007.[362] It has been steadily falling since
the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is
expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050[363] thus completing the
demographic transition.[364]
In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%.[365]
RACE AND ETHNICITY
Main article: Race and ethnicity in Brazil
Race and ethnicity in Brazil 2022
Mixed (45.3%)
White (43.5%)
Black (10.2%)
Indigenous (0.6%)
East Asian (0.4%)
According to the 2022 Brazilian census, 45.3% of the population (92,1 million)
described themselves as Pardo (meaning brown or mixed), 43.5% (88,2 million) as
White, 10.2% (20,7 million) as Black, 0.6% (1,2 million) as Indigenous and 0.4%
(850 thousand) as East Asian (officially called yellow or amarela).[366]
Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable genetic mixing between
Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans has taken place in all regions of the
country: European ancestry being dominant nationwide according to the vast
majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population,
accounting for between 65% and 77%,[367][368][369][370] while the African
ancestry among the Brazilians is estimated at 14.30% to 25%[369][371] and more
than 80% of Brazilians have over 10% African ancestry,[372] and the Indigenous
ancestry is significant and present in all regions of
Brazil.[373][374][375][376][377][378][379]
From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five
million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972,
most of them of Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, English, Ukrainian,
Polish, Jewish, African, Armenian, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Arab
origin.[380][381][382] Brazil has the second-largest Jewish community in Latin
America making up 0.06% of its population.[383] Outside in the Arab world,
Brazil also has the largest population of Arab ancestry in the world, with 15–20
million people.[384][385] According to Brazil's Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Brazil is home to a Lebanese diaspora of 7 million to 10 million, surpassing the
population of Lebanese individuals residing in Lebanon.[386]
Brazilian society is more markedly divided by social class lines, although a
high income disparity is found between race groups, so racism and classism often
overlap. The brown population (officially called pardo in Portuguese, also
colloquially moreno)[387][388] is a broad category that includes caboclos
(assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives),
mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos
(descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives).[387][388][389][390][391] Higher
percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast
of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba[391][392] and also in northern
Maranhão,[393][394] southern Minas Gerais[395] and eastern Rio de
Janeiro.[391][395]
People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population
in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.[396] In 2007, the
National Indian Foundation estimated that Brazil has 67 different uncontacted
tribes, up from their estimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the
largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.[397]
RELIGION
Main article: Religion in Brazil
Further information: Catholic Church in Brazil and Protestantism in Brazil
Religion in Brazil (2010 Census)
Catholicism (64.6%)
Protestantism (22.2%)
Spiritism (2.0%)
Other (3.2%)
No religion (8.0%)
Christianity is the country's predominant faith, with Roman Catholicism being
its largest denomination. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic
population.[398][399] According to the 2010 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey
does not inquire about religion), 64.63% of the population followed Roman
Catholicism; 22.2% Protestantism; 2.0% Kardecist spiritism; 3.2% other
religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 8.0% had no religion.[400]
Religion in Brazil was formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the
religious traditions of enslaved African peoples and indigenous peoples.[401]
This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to
the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the
overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by traditional
Portuguese festivities.[402]
Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century,[403] and the Protestant
community has grown to include over 22% of the population.[404] The most common
Protestant denominations are Evangelical Pentecostal ones. Other Protestant
branches with a notable presence in the country include the Baptists,
Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and the Reformed tradition.[405]
In recent decades, Protestantism, particularly in forms of Pentecostalism and
Evangelicalism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has
dropped significantly.[406] After Protestantism, individuals professing no
religion are also a significant group, exceeding 8% of the population as of the
2010 census. The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho have the
greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil. Teresina, Fortaleza, and
Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic in the country.[407] Greater Rio de
Janeiro, not including the city proper, is the most irreligious and least Roman
Catholic Brazilian periphery, while Greater Porto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza
are on the opposite sides of the lists, respectively.[407]
In October 2009, the Brazilian Senate approved and enacted by the President of
Brazil in February 2010, an agreement with the Vatican, in which the Legal
Statute of the Catholic Church in Brazil is recognized.[408][409]
HEALTH
Main articles: Health in Brazil and Sistema Único de Saúde
The Clinical Hospital of Porto Alegre is academically linked to the Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul and is part of the SUS, the Brazilian publicly
funded health care system.
The Brazilian public health system, the Unified Health System (Sistema Único de
Saúde – SUS), is managed and provided by all levels of government,[410] being
the largest system of this type in the world.[411] On the other hand, private
healthcare systems play a complementary role.[412] Public health services are
universal and offered to all citizens of the country for free. However, the
construction and maintenance of health centers and hospitals are financed by
taxes, and the country spends about 9% of its GDP on expenditures in the area.
In 2012, Brazil had 1.85 doctors and 2.3 hospital beds for every 1,000
inhabitants.[413][414]
Despite all the progress made since the creation of the universal health care
system in 1988, there are still several public health problems in Brazil. In
2006, the main points to be solved were the high infant (2.51%) and maternal
mortality rates (73.1 deaths per 1000 births).[415]
The number of deaths from noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular
diseases (151.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) and cancer (72.7 deaths per
100,000 inhabitants), also has a considerable impact on the health of the
Brazilian population. Finally, external but preventable factors such as car
accidents, violence and suicide caused 14.9% of all deaths in the country.[415]
The Brazilian health system was ranked 125th among the 191 countries evaluated
by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2000.[416]
EDUCATION
Main article: Education in Brazil
Historical building of the Federal University of Paraná, one of the oldest
universities in Brazil, located in Curitiba
The Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National
Education determine that the Union, the states, the Federal District and the
municipalities must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each
of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance,
which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The
constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and
municipal taxes for education.[417]
According to the IBGE, in 2019, the literacy rate of the population was 93.4%,
meaning that 11.3 million (6.6% of population) people are still illiterate in
the country, with some states such as Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina reaching
around 97% of literacy rate;[418] functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the
population.[419] Illiteracy is higher in the Northeast, where 13.87% of the
population is illiterate, while the South, has 3.3% of its population
illiterate.[420][418]
Brazil's private institutions tend to be more exclusive and offer better quality
education, so many high-income families send their children there. The result is
a segregated educational system that reflects extreme income disparities and
reinforces social inequality. However, efforts to change this are making
impacts.[421] The University of São Paulo is often considered the best in Brazil
and Latin America.[422][423] Of the top 20 Latin American universities, eight
are Brazilian. Most of them are public. Attending an institution of higher
education is required by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education. Kindergarten,
elementary and medium education are required of all students.[424]
LANGUAGE
Main articles: Languages of Brazil, Portuguese language, Brazilian Portuguese,
and List of endangered languages in Brazil
Museum of the Portuguese Language in São Paulo
Alto Rio Negro Indigenous Territory, in São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Amazonas,
where Nhengatu, Tucano and Baniwa are co-official languages
Pomerode, Santa Catarina, where the East Pomeranian is the second language (see
Brazilian German)
The official language of Brazil is Portuguese (Article 13 of the Constitution of
the Federal Republic of Brazil), which almost all of the population speaks and
is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for
business and administrative purposes. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking
nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian
national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its
Spanish-speaking neighbors.[425]
Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, mostly similar to 16th-century
Central and Southern dialects of European Portuguese[426] (despite a very
substantial number of Portuguese colonial settlers, and more recent immigrants,
coming from Northern regions, and in minor degree Portuguese Macaronesia), with
a few influences from the Amerindian and African languages, especially West
African and Bantu restricted to the vocabulary only.[427] As a result, the
language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, from the language of
Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries (the dialects of the other
countries, partly because of the more recent end of Portuguese colonialism in
these regions, have a closer connection to contemporary European Portuguese).
These differences are comparable to those between American and British
English.[427]
The 2002 sign language law[428] requires government authorities and public
agencies to accept and provide information in Língua Brasileira dos Sinais or
"LIBRAS", the Brazilian Sign Language, while a 2005 presidential edict[429]
extends this to require teaching of the language as a part of the education and
speech and language pathology curricula. LIBRAS teachers, instructors and
translators are recognized professionals. Schools and health services must
provide access ("inclusion") to deaf people.[430]
Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty
Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a significant number of
other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.[427] In the
municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Nheengatu (a currently endangered
South American creole language—or an 'anti-creole', according to some
linguists—with mostly Indigenous Brazilian languages lexicon and
Portuguese-based grammar that, together with its southern relative língua geral
paulista, once was a major lingua franca in Brazil,[431] being replaced by
Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led by major political
changes),[excessive detail?] Baniwa and Tucano languages had been granted
co-official status with Portuguese.[432]
There are significant communities of German (mostly the Brazilian Hunsrückisch,
a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the Talian, a Venetian
dialect) origins in the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ancestors'
native languages were carried along to Brazil, and which, still alive there, are
influenced by the Portuguese language.[433][434] Talian is officially a historic
patrimony of Rio Grande do Sul,[435] and two German dialects possess co-official
status in a few municipalities.[436] Italian is also recognized as ethnic
language in the Santa Teresa microregion and Vila Velha (Espirito Santo state),
and is taught as mandatory second language at school.[437]
URBANIZATION
Main article: List of cities in Brazil by population
According to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas
already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains
the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants.[438] The largest urban
agglomerations in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte—all
in the Southeastern Region—with 21.1, 12.3, and 5.1 million inhabitants
respectively.[439][440][441] The majority of state capitals are the largest
cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and
Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina.[442]
* v
* t
* e
Largest urban agglomerations in Brazil
2017 Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics estimates[439][443][444]
Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop.
São Paulo
Rio de Janeiro 1 São Paulo São Paulo 21,314,716 11 Belém Pará 2,157,180 2 Rio de
Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 12,389,775 12 Manaus Amazonas 2,130,264 3 Belo Horizonte
Minas Gerais 5,142,260 13 Campinas São Paulo 2,105,600 4 Recife Pernambuco
4,021,641 14 Vitória Espírito Santo 1,837,047 5 Brasília Federal District
3,986,425 15 Baixada Santista São Paulo 1,702,343 6 Porto Alegre Rio Grande do
Sul 3,894,232 16 São José dos Campos São Paulo 1,572,943 7 Salvador Bahia
3,863,154 17 São Luís Maranhão 1,421,569 8 Fortaleza Ceará 3,594,924 18 Natal
Rio Grande do Norte 1,349,743 9 Curitiba Paraná 3,387,985 19 Maceió Alagoas
1,231,965 10 Goiânia Goiás 2,347,557 20 João Pessoa Paraíba 1,168,941
CULTURE
Main article: Culture of Brazil
Parade of Portela samba school at the Rio Carnival, the largest carnival in the
world[445]
The core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its
strong colonial ties with the Portuguese Empire.[446] Among other influences,
the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism and
colonial architectural styles. The culture was also strongly influenced by
African, indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.[447]
Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of
Italian, German and other European as well as Japanese, Jewish and Arab
immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil
during the 19th and 20th centuries.[448] The indigenous Amerindians influenced
Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine,
music, dance and religion.[449]
Brazilian art has developed since the 16th century into different styles that
range from Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th
century)[450][451] to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism
and Abstractionism. Brazilian cinema dates back to the birth of the medium in
the late 19th century and has gained a new level of international acclaim since
the 1960s.[452]
ARCHITECTURE
Main article: Architecture of Brazil
The Cathedral of Brasília, designed by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer for
the federal capital, an example of Modern architecture
The architecture of Brazil is influenced by Europe, especially Portugal. It has
a history that goes back 500 years to the time, when Pedro Álvares Cabral landed
in Brazil in 1500. Portuguese colonial architecture was the first wave of
architecture to go to Brazil.[453] It is the basis for all Brazilian
architecture of later centuries.[454] In the 19th century, during the time of
the Empire of Brazil, the country followed European trends and adopted
Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. Then, in the 20th century,
especially in Brasília, Brazil experimented with modernist architecture.
The colonial architecture of Brazil dates to the early 16th century, when Brazil
was first explored, conquered and settled by the Portuguese. The Portuguese
built architecture familiar to them in Europe in their aim to colonize Brazil.
They built Portuguese colonial architecture, which included churches and civic
architecture, including houses and forts, in Brazilian cities and the
countryside.[455]
During the 19th century, Brazilian architecture saw the introduction of more
European styles to Brazil, such as Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture.
This was usually mixed with Brazilian influences from their own heritage.[455]
In the 1950s modernist architecture was introduced when Brasília was built as a
new federal capital in the interior of Brazil to help develop the interior. The
architect Oscar Niemeyer idealized and built government buildings, churches and
civic buildings in the modernist style.[456]
MUSIC
Main article: Music of Brazil
Tom Jobim, one of the creators of bossa nova, and Chico Buarque, one of the
leading names of MPB
The music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion of European, Native
Indigenous, and African elements.[457] Until the nineteenth century, Portugal
was the gateway to most of the influences that built Brazilian music, although
many of these elements were not of Portuguese origin, but generally European.
The first was José Maurício Nunes Garcia, author of sacred pieces with an
influence of Viennese classicism.[458] The major contribution of the African
element was the rhythmic diversity and some dances and instruments.[457]
Popular music since the late eighteenth century, samba was considered the most
typical and on the UNESCO cultural heritage list.[459] Samba-reggae, Maracatu,
Frevo and Afoxê are four music traditions that have been popularized by their
appearance in the annual Brazilian Carnivals.[460] Capoeira is usually played
with its own music referred to as capoeira music, which is usually considered to
be a call-and-response type of folk music.[461] Forró is a type of folk music
prominent during the Festa Junina in northeastern Brazil.[462] Jack A. Draper
III, a professor of Portuguese at the University of Missouri,[463] argues that
Forró was used as a way to subdue feelings of nostalgia for a rural
lifestyle.[464]
Choro is a popular musical instrumental style. Its origins are in 19th-century
Rio de Janeiro. The style often has a fast and happy rhythm, characterized by
subtle modulations and full of syncopation and counterpoint.[465] Bossa nova is
also a well-known style of Brazilian music developed and popularized in the
1950s and 1960s.[466] The phrase "bossa nova" means literally 'new trend'.[467]
A lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following
starting in the 1960s.[468] Some international Brazilian music artists are, for
example: Villa-Lobos, Tom Jobim, João Gilberto, Sergio Mendes, Eumir Deodato,
Kaoma, Sepultura, Olodum and CSS.
LITERATURE
Main article: Brazilian literature
Machado de Assis, poet and novelist, founder of the Brazilian Academy of Letters
Brazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the
first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pero Vaz de Caminha, filled with
descriptions of fauna, flora and commentary about the indigenous population that
fascinated European readers.[469]
Brazil produced significant works in Romanticism—novelists such as Joaquim
Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar,
in his long career, also treated indigenous people as heroes in the Indigenist
novels O Guarani, Iracema and Ubirajara.[470] Machado de Assis, one of his
contemporaries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gain
international prestige from critics worldwide.[471][472][473]
Brazilian Modernism, evidenced by the Modern Art Week in 1922, was concerned
with a nationalist avant-garde literature,[474] while Post-Modernism brought a
generation of distinct poets such as João Cabral de Melo Neto, Carlos Drummond
de Andrade, Vinicius de Moraes, Cora Coralina, Graciliano Ramos, Cecília
Meireles, and internationally known writers dealing with universal and regional
subjects such as Jorge Amado, João Guimarães Rosa, Clarice Lispector and Manuel
Bandeira.[475][476][477]
Brazil's most significant literary award is the Camões Prize, which it shares
with the rest of the Portuguese-speaking world. As of 2016, Brazil has eleven
recipients of the prize.[478] Brazil also holds its own literary academy, the
Brazilian Academy of Letters, a non-profit cultural organization aimed at
perpetuating the care of the national language and literature.[479]
CINEMA
Main article: Cinema of Brazil
Gramado Film Festival, the biggest film festival in the country
The Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th century, during the early
days of the Belle Époque. While there were national film productions during the
early 20th century, American films such as Rio the Magnificent were made in Rio
de Janeiro to promote tourism in the city.[480] The films Limite (1931) and
Ganga Bruta (1933), the latter being produced by Adhemar Gonzaga through the
prolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at release and failed at the box
office, but are acclaimed nowadays and placed among the finest Brazilian films
of all time.[481] The 1941 unfinished film It's All True was divided into four
segments, two of which were filmed in Brazil and directed by Orson Welles; it
was originally produced as part of the United States' Good Neighbor Policy
during Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo government.
During the 1960s, the Cinema Novo movement rose to prominence with directors
such as Glauber Rocha, Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Paulo Cesar Saraceni and
Arnaldo Jabor. Rocha's films Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol (1964) and Terra em
Transe (1967) are considered to be some of the greatest and most influential in
Brazilian film history.[482]
During the 1990s, Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with
films such as O Quatrilho (Fábio Barreto, 1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro?
(Bruno Barreto, 1997) and Central do Brasil (Walter Salles, 1998), all of which
were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter
receiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Montenegro. The 2002 crime film
City of God, directed by Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scoring
90% on Rotten Tomatoes,[483] being placed in Roger Ebert's Best Films of the
Decade list[484] and receiving four Academy Award nominations in 2004, including
Best Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo and Rio de
Janeiro International Film Festivals and the Gramado Festival.
VISUAL ARTS
Main article: Brazilian painting
Entry in the Forest mural at the Thomas Jefferson Building by Candido Portinari,
one of the most important Brazilian painters
Brazilian painting emerged in the late 16th century,[485] influenced by Baroque,
Rococo, Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism, Expressionism,
Surrealism, Cubism and Abstracionism making it a major art style called
Brazilian academic art.[486][487]
The French Artistic Mission arrived in Brazil in 1816 proposing the creation of
an art academy modeled after the respected Académie des Beaux-Arts, with
graduation courses both for artists and craftsmen for activities such as
modeling, decorating, carpentry and others and bringing artists such as
Jean-Baptiste Debret.[487]
Upon the creation of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, new artistic movements
spread across the country during the 19th century and later the event called
Modern Art Week broke with academic tradition in 1922 and started a nationalist
trend which was influenced by modernist arts.[488]
Among the best-known Brazilian painters are Ricardo do Pilar and Manuel da Costa
Ataíde (baroque and rococo), Victor Meirelles, Pedro Américo and Almeida Júnior
(romanticism and realism), Anita Malfatti, Ismael Nery, Lasar Segall, Emiliano
di Cavalcanti, Vicente do Rego Monteiro, and Tarsila do Amaral (expressionism,
surrealism and cubism), Aldo Bonadei, José Pancetti and Cândido Portinari
(modernism).[489]
THEATRE
Augusto Boal presenting a workshop on the Theatre of the Oppressed at Riverside
Church in New York City in 2008
The theatre in Brazil has its origins in the period of Jesuit expansion, when
theater was used for the dissemination of Catholic doctrine in the 16th century.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, dramatists on the scene of European derivation
were for court or private performances.[490] During the 19th century, the
playwrights Antônio Gonçalves Dias and Luís Carlos Martins Pena were known for
their performance.[491] There were also numerous operas and orchestras. The
Brazilian conductor Antônio Carlos Gomes became internationally known with
operas such as Il Guarany. At the end of the 19th century, orchestrated
dramaturgias were accompanied with songs of famous artists such as the
conductress Chiquinha Gonzaga.[492]
Already in the early 20th century there was the presence of theaters,
entrepreneurs and actor companies. In 1940, Paschoal Carlos Magno and his
student's theater, the comedians group and the Italian actors Adolfo Celi,
Ruggero Jacobbi and Aldo Calvo, founders of the Teatro Brasileiro de Comédia,
renewed the Brazilian theater. From the 1960s, it was attended by a theater
dedicated to social and religious issues. The most prominent authors at this
stage were Jorge Andrade and Ariano Suassuna.[491]
CUISINE
Main article: Brazilian cuisine
See also: List of Brazilian dishes
Feijoada is the national dish of Brazilian cuisine.
Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's varying mix
of indigenous and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine
marked by the preservation of regional differences.[493] Examples are Feijoada,
considered the country's national dish;[494] and regional foods such as beiju,
feijão tropeiro, vatapá, moqueca, polenta (from Italian cuisine) and acarajé
(from African cuisine).[495] The national beverage is coffee; cachaça is
Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main
ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.[496]
A typical meal consists mostly of rice and beans with beef, salad, french fries
and a fried egg.[497] Often, it is mixed with cassava flour (farofa). Fried
potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very
often eaten in lunch and served in most typical restaurants.[498] Popular snacks
are pastel (a fried pastry); coxinha (a variation of chicken croquete); pão de
queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour / tapioca); pamonha (corn and milk
paste); esfirra (a variation of Lebanese pastry); kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine);
empanada (pastry) and empada, little salt pies filled with shrimps or heart of
palm.
Brazil has a variety of desserts such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls),
bolo de rolo (roll cake with goiabada), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos
(coconut truffles and clove) and Romeu e Julieta (cheese with goiabada). Peanuts
are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local common fruits such as
açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew, guava, orange, lime, passionfruit,
pineapple, and hog plum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, ice
pops and ice cream.[499]
MEDIA
Main articles: Telecommunications in Brazil and Television in Brazil
See also: Concentration of media ownership § Brazil, and Mass media regulation
in Brazil
Former President Dilma Rousseff at Jornal Nacional news program. Rede Globo is
the world's second-largest commercial television network.[500]
The Brazilian press was officially born in Rio de Janeiro on 13 May 1808 with
the creation of the Royal Printing National Press by the Prince Regent Dom
João.[501] The Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in the
country, began to circulate on 10 September 1808.[502] The largest newspapers
nowadays are Folha de S.Paulo, Super Notícia, O Globo and O Estado de S.
Paulo.[503]
Radio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with a speech by then President
Pessoa, and was formalized on 20 April 1923 with the creation of the "Radio
Society of Rio de Janeiro".[504] Television in Brazil began officially on 18
September 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi by Assis Chateaubriand.[505] Since
then, television has grown in the country, creating large commercial broadcast
networks such as Globo, SBT, RecordTV, Bandeirantes and RedeTV. Today it is the
most important factor in the popular culture of Brazilian society, as indicated
by research showing that as much as 67%[506][507] of the general population
follow the same daily telenovela broadcast.
By the mid-1960s, Brazilian universities had installed mainframe computers from
IBM and Burroughs Large Systems. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Brazilian
government restricted foreign imports to protect the local manufacturing of
computers. In the 1980s, Brazil produced half of the computers sold in the
country. By 2009, the mobile phone and Internet use in Brazil was the fifth
largest in the world.[508]
In May 2010, the Brazilian government launched TV Brasil Internacional, an
international television station, initially broadcasting to 49 countries.[509]
Commercial television channels broadcast internationally include Globo
Internacional, RecordTV Internacional and Band Internacional.
SPORTS
Main article: Sport in Brazil
See also: Brazil at the Olympics
Pelé, a footballer as well as sport figures of the 20th century[510][511]
Ayrton Senna, the driver with most consecutive wins and pole positions at the
same Grand Prix of Formula One
The most popular sport in Brazil is football.[512] The Brazilian men's national
team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings,
and has won the World Cup tournament a record five times.[513][514]
Volleyball, basketball, auto racing and martial arts also has large audiences.
The Brazil men's national volleyball team, for example, currently holds the
titles of the World League, World Grand Champions Cup, World Championship and
the World Cup. In auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One
world championship eight times.[515][516][517] The country has also produced
significant achievements in other sports such as sailing, swimming, tennis,
surfing, skateboarding, MMA, gymnastics, boxing, judo, athletics and table
tennis.
Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beach football,[518] futsal
(indoor football)[519] and footvolley emerged in Brazil as variations of
football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed Capoeira,[520] Vale tudo[521]
and Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[522]
Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, such as
the 1950 FIFA World Cup,[523] and recently has hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup,
2019 Copa América and 2021 Copa América .[524] The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo
José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.[525] São Paulo
organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV
Pan American Games in 2007.[526] On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected
to host the 2016 Olympic Games and 2016 Paralympic Games, making it the first
South American city to host the games[527] and second in Latin America, after
Mexico City. Furthermore, the country hosted the FIBA Basketball World Cups in
1954 and 1963. At the 1963 event, the Brazil national basketball team won one of
its two world championship titles.[528]
SEE ALSO
* Brazil portal
* Latin America portal
* Outline of Brazil
NOTES
1. ^ The Brazilian census uses the term amarela (or yellow in English) as a
racial category to describe people of East Asian background. This category
therefore excludes those of other Asian origins, such as West Asians/Arabs,
who are included in the white category, and South Asians.
2. ^ Portuguese: Brasil, pronounced [bɾaˈziw] ⓘ.
3. ^ Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil,[10] pronounced [ʁeˈpublikɐ
fedeɾaˈtʃivɐ du bɾaˈziw] ⓘ.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
* Azevedo, Aroldo. O Brasil e suas regiões. São Paulo: Companhia Editora
Nacional, 1971
* Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil,
1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8047-3510-7
* Biscardi, Afrânio; Rocha, Frederico Almeida (May 2006), "O Mecenato Artístico
de D. Pedro II e o Projeto Imperial", 19&20 – A revista eletrônica de
DezenoveVinte, vol. I, no. 1
* Boxer, Charles R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire (1969)
* O império marítimo português 1415–1825. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras,
2002. ISBN 85-359-0292-9
* Bueno, Eduardo. Brasil: uma História. São Paulo: Ática, 2003.
ISBN 85-08-08213-4
* Calmon, Pedro. História da Civilização Brasileira. Brasília: Senado Federal,
2002
* Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007
* Coelho, Marcos Amorim. Geografia do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996
* Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004
* Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro:
Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987
* Ermakoff, George (2006). Rio de Janeiro – 1840–1900 – Uma crônica fotográfica
(in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: G. Ermakoff Casa Editorial.
ISBN 978-85-98815-05-3.
* Fausto, Boris and Devoto, Fernando J. Brasil e Argentina: Um ensaio de
história comparada (1850–2002), 2nd ed. São Paulo: Editoria 34, 2005.
ISBN 85-7326-308-3
* Gaspari, Elio. A ditadura envergonhada. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras,
2002. ISBN 85-359-0277-5
* Janotti, Aldo. O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num
momento crítico da história da nacionalidade. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990
* Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Ascenção (1825–1870). v.
1. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977
* Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Declínio (1880–1891). v.
3. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977
* Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter. São Paulo:
Companhia das letras, 2006. ISBN 85-359-0807-2
* Moreira, Igor A. G. O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil. 18. Ed.
São Paulo: Ática, 1981
* Munro, Dana Gardner. The Latin American Republics; A History. New York: D.
Appleton, 1942.
* Peres, Damião (1949) O Descobrimento do Brasil por Pedro Álvares Cabral:
antecedentes e intencionalidade Porto: Portucalense.
* Scheina, Robert L. Latin America: A Naval History, 1810–1987. Annapolis, MD:
Naval Institute Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87021-295-8
* Lilia Schwarcz (30 November 1998). As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um
monarca nos trópicos (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras.
ISBN 978-85-7164-837-1. OL 142027M. Wikidata Q18238040.
* Stuart B. Schwartz Sovereignty and Society in Colonial Brazil (1973)
* Early Latin America (1983)
* Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society (1985)
* Skidmore, Thomas E. Brazil: Five Centuries of Change (Oxford University
Press, 1999)
* Uma História do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003.
ISBN 85-219-0313-8
* Souza, Adriana Barreto de. Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento.
Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008. ISBN 978-85-200-0864-5.
* Wright, Simon. 1992. Villa-Lobos. Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-315475-7
* Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva,
2002. ISBN 85-7302-441-0
* Vesentini, José William. Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil.
7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988
* Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república,
15th ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994
* Zirin, Dave. Brazil's Dance with the Devil: The World Cup, The Olympics, and
the Fight for Democracy Haymarket Books 2014. ISBN 978-1-60846-360-2
FURTHER READING
* Alencastro Felipe, Luiz Felipe de. The Trade in the Living: The Formation of
Brazil in the South Atlantic, Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries (SUNY Press,
2019)
* Alves, Maria Helena Moreira (1985). State and Opposition in Military Brazil.
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
* Amann, Edmund (1990). The Illusion of Stability: The Brazilian Economy under
Cardoso. World Development (pp. 1805–19).
* "Background Note: Brazil". US Department of State. Retrieved 16 June 2011.
* Bellos, Alex (2003). Futebol: The Brazilian Way of Life. London: Bloomsbury
Publishing plc.
* Bethell, Leslie (1991). Colonial Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
* Costa, João Cruz (1964). A History of Ideas in Brazil. Los Angeles, CA:
University of California Press.
* Fausto, Boris (1999). A Concise History of Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
* Furtado, Celso (1963). The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial
to Modern Times. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
* Lamoureux, Andrew Jackson; and three others (1911). "Brazil" . Encyclopædia
Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). pp. 438–463.
* Leal, Victor Nunes (1977). Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative
Government in Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
* Levine, Robert M. Historical Dictionary of Brazil (2019)
* Malathronas, John (2003). Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul. Chichester: Summersdale.
* Martinez-Lara, Javier (1995). Building Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of
Constitutional Change. Macmillan.
* Prado Júnior, Caio (1967). The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil. Los
Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
* Schneider, Ronald (1995). Brazil: Culture and Politics in a New Economic
Powerhouse. Boulder Westview.
* Skidmore, Thomas E. (1974). Black into White: Race and Nationality in
Brazilian Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-501776-2.
* Wagley, Charles (1963). An Introduction to Brazil. New York, New York:
Columbia University Press.
EXTERNAL LINKS
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