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Navbar Search Filter The Quarterly Journal of EconomicsThis issueB4 - Economic
MethodologyC1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General
EconomicsBooksJournalsOxford Academic Mobile Enter search term Search
 * Issues
 * JEL
   * A - General Economics and Teaching
     * Browse content in A - General Economics and Teaching
     * A1 - General Economics
       * Browse content in A1 - General Economics
       * A11 - Role of Economics; Role of Economists; Market for Economists
   * B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches
     * Browse content in B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and
       Heterodox Approaches
     * B4 - Economic Methodology
       * Browse content in B4 - Economic Methodology
       * B49 - Other
   * C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods
     * Browse content in C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods
     * C0 - General
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       * C00 - General
       * C01 - Econometrics
     * C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General
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         Methodology: General
       * C10 - General
       * C11 - Bayesian Analysis: General
       * C12 - Hypothesis Testing: General
       * C13 - Estimation: General
       * C14 - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General
       * C18 - Methodological Issues: General
     * C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables
       * Browse content in C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables
       * C21 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models;
         Quantile Regressions
       * C23 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models
       * C26 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation
     * C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables
       * Browse content in C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models;
         Multiple Variables
       * C30 - General
       * C31 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models;
         Quantile Regressions; Social Interaction Models
       * C32 - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic
         Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes; State Space Models
       * C35 - Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models; Discrete
         Regressors; Proportions
     * C4 - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics
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         Topics
       * C40 - General
     * C5 - Econometric Modeling
       * Browse content in C5 - Econometric Modeling
       * C52 - Model Evaluation, Validation, and Selection
       * C53 - Forecasting and Prediction Methods; Simulation Methods
       * C55 - Large Data Sets: Modeling and Analysis
     * C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and
       Simulation Modeling
       * Browse content in C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models;
         Mathematical and Simulation Modeling
       * C63 - Computational Techniques; Simulation Modeling
       * C67 - Input-Output Models
     * C7 - Game Theory and Bargaining Theory
       * Browse content in C7 - Game Theory and Bargaining Theory
       * C71 - Cooperative Games
       * C72 - Noncooperative Games
       * C73 - Stochastic and Dynamic Games; Evolutionary Games; Repeated Games
       * C78 - Bargaining Theory; Matching Theory
       * C79 - Other
     * C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs
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         Computer Programs
       * C83 - Survey Methods; Sampling Methods
     * C9 - Design of Experiments
       * Browse content in C9 - Design of Experiments
       * C90 - General
       * C91 - Laboratory, Individual Behavior
       * C92 - Laboratory, Group Behavior
       * C93 - Field Experiments
       * C99 - Other
   * D - Microeconomics
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     * D0 - General
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       * D00 - General
       * D01 - Microeconomic Behavior: Underlying Principles
       * D02 - Institutions: Design, Formation, Operations, and Impact
       * D03 - Behavioral Microeconomics: Underlying Principles
       * D04 - Microeconomic Policy: Formulation; Implementation, and Evaluation
     * D1 - Household Behavior and Family Economics
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       * D10 - General
       * D11 - Consumer Economics: Theory
       * D12 - Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis
       * D13 - Household Production and Intrahousehold Allocation
       * D14 - Household Saving; Personal Finance
       * D15 - Intertemporal Household Choice: Life Cycle Models and Saving
       * D18 - Consumer Protection
     * D2 - Production and Organizations
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       * D20 - General
       * D21 - Firm Behavior: Theory
       * D22 - Firm Behavior: Empirical Analysis
       * D23 - Organizational Behavior; Transaction Costs; Property Rights
       * D24 - Production; Cost; Capital; Capital, Total Factor, and Multifactor
         Productivity; Capacity
     * D3 - Distribution
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       * D30 - General
       * D31 - Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions
       * D33 - Factor Income Distribution
     * D4 - Market Structure, Pricing, and Design
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       * D40 - General
       * D41 - Perfect Competition
       * D42 - Monopoly
       * D43 - Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection
       * D44 - Auctions
       * D47 - Market Design
       * D49 - Other
     * D5 - General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium
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       * D50 - General
       * D51 - Exchange and Production Economies
       * D52 - Incomplete Markets
       * D53 - Financial Markets
       * D57 - Input-Output Tables and Analysis
     * D6 - Welfare Economics
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       * D60 - General
       * D61 - Allocative Efficiency; Cost-Benefit Analysis
       * D62 - Externalities
       * D63 - Equity, Justice, Inequality, and Other Normative Criteria and
         Measurement
       * D64 - Altruism; Philanthropy
       * D69 - Other
     * D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making
       * Browse content in D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making
       * D70 - General
       * D71 - Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations
       * D72 - Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections,
         Legislatures, and Voting Behavior
       * D73 - Bureaucracy; Administrative Processes in Public Organizations;
         Corruption
       * D74 - Conflict; Conflict Resolution; Alliances; Revolutions
       * D78 - Positive Analysis of Policy Formulation and Implementation
     * D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty
       * Browse content in D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty
       * D80 - General
       * D81 - Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty
       * D82 - Asymmetric and Private Information; Mechanism Design
       * D83 - Search; Learning; Information and Knowledge; Communication;
         Belief; Unawareness
       * D84 - Expectations; Speculations
       * D85 - Network Formation and Analysis: Theory
       * D86 - Economics of Contract: Theory
       * D89 - Other
     * D9 - Micro-Based Behavioral Economics
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       * D90 - General
       * D91 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and
         Cognitive Factors on Decision Making
       * D92 - Intertemporal Firm Choice, Investment, Capacity, and Financing
   * E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
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     * E0 - General
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       * E00 - General
       * E01 - Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and
         Wealth; Environmental Accounts
       * E02 - Institutions and the Macroeconomy
       * E03 - Behavioral Macroeconomics
     * E1 - General Aggregative Models
       * Browse content in E1 - General Aggregative Models
       * E10 - General
       * E12 - Keynes; Keynesian; Post-Keynesian
       * E13 - Neoclassical
     * E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and
       Informal Economy
       * Browse content in E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment,
         Labor Markets, and Informal Economy
       * E20 - General
       * E21 - Consumption; Saving; Wealth
       * E22 - Investment; Capital; Intangible Capital; Capacity
       * E23 - Production
       * E24 - Employment; Unemployment; Wages; Intergenerational Income
         Distribution; Aggregate Human Capital; Aggregate Labor Productivity
       * E25 - Aggregate Factor Income Distribution
     * E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles
       * Browse content in E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles
       * E30 - General
       * E31 - Price Level; Inflation; Deflation
       * E32 - Business Fluctuations; Cycles
       * E37 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
     * E4 - Money and Interest Rates
       * Browse content in E4 - Money and Interest Rates
       * E40 - General
       * E41 - Demand for Money
       * E42 - Monetary Systems; Standards; Regimes; Government and the Monetary
         System; Payment Systems
       * E43 - Interest Rates: Determination, Term Structure, and Effects
       * E44 - Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy
     * E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit
       * Browse content in E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply
         of Money and Credit
       * E50 - General
       * E51 - Money Supply; Credit; Money Multipliers
       * E52 - Monetary Policy
       * E58 - Central Banks and Their Policies
     * E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and
       General Outlook
       * Browse content in E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of
         Public Finance, and General Outlook
       * E60 - General
       * E62 - Fiscal Policy
       * E66 - General Outlook and Conditions
     * E7 - Macro-Based Behavioral Economics
       * Browse content in E7 - Macro-Based Behavioral Economics
       * E71 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and
         Cognitive Factors on the Macro Economy
   * F - International Economics
     * Browse content in F - International Economics
     * F0 - General
       * Browse content in F0 - General
       * F00 - General
     * F1 - Trade
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       * F10 - General
       * F11 - Neoclassical Models of Trade
       * F12 - Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies;
         Fragmentation
       * F13 - Trade Policy; International Trade Organizations
       * F14 - Empirical Studies of Trade
       * F15 - Economic Integration
       * F16 - Trade and Labor Market Interactions
       * F18 - Trade and Environment
     * F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business
       * Browse content in F2 - International Factor Movements and International
         Business
       * F20 - General
       * F21 - International Investment; Long-Term Capital Movements
       * F22 - International Migration
       * F23 - Multinational Firms; International Business
     * F3 - International Finance
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       * F30 - General
       * F31 - Foreign Exchange
       * F32 - Current Account Adjustment; Short-Term Capital Movements
       * F34 - International Lending and Debt Problems
       * F35 - Foreign Aid
       * F36 - Financial Aspects of Economic Integration
     * F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance
       * Browse content in F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and
         Finance
       * F40 - General
       * F41 - Open Economy Macroeconomics
       * F42 - International Policy Coordination and Transmission
       * F43 - Economic Growth of Open Economies
       * F44 - International Business Cycles
     * F5 - International Relations, National Security, and International
       Political Economy
       * Browse content in F5 - International Relations, National Security, and
         International Political Economy
       * F50 - General
       * F51 - International Conflicts; Negotiations; Sanctions
       * F52 - National Security; Economic Nationalism
       * F55 - International Institutional Arrangements
     * F6 - Economic Impacts of Globalization
       * Browse content in F6 - Economic Impacts of Globalization
       * F60 - General
       * F61 - Microeconomic Impacts
       * F63 - Economic Development
   * G - Financial Economics
     * Browse content in G - Financial Economics
     * G0 - General
       * Browse content in G0 - General
       * G00 - General
       * G01 - Financial Crises
       * G02 - Behavioral Finance: Underlying Principles
     * G1 - General Financial Markets
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       * G10 - General
       * G11 - Portfolio Choice; Investment Decisions
       * G12 - Asset Pricing; Trading volume; Bond Interest Rates
       * G14 - Information and Market Efficiency; Event Studies; Insider Trading
       * G15 - International Financial Markets
       * G18 - Government Policy and Regulation
     * G2 - Financial Institutions and Services
       * Browse content in G2 - Financial Institutions and Services
       * G20 - General
       * G21 - Banks; Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions;
         Mortgages
       * G22 - Insurance; Insurance Companies; Actuarial Studies
       * G23 - Non-bank Financial Institutions; Financial Instruments;
         Institutional Investors
       * G24 - Investment Banking; Venture Capital; Brokerage; Ratings and
         Ratings Agencies
       * G28 - Government Policy and Regulation
     * G3 - Corporate Finance and Governance
       * Browse content in G3 - Corporate Finance and Governance
       * G30 - General
       * G31 - Capital Budgeting; Fixed Investment and Inventory Studies;
         Capacity
       * G32 - Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and
         Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill
       * G33 - Bankruptcy; Liquidation
       * G34 - Mergers; Acquisitions; Restructuring; Corporate Governance
       * G38 - Government Policy and Regulation
     * G4 - Behavioral Finance
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       * G40 - General
       * G41 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and
         Cognitive Factors on Decision Making in Financial Markets
     * G5 - Household Finance
       * Browse content in G5 - Household Finance
       * G50 - General
       * G51 - Household Saving, Borrowing, Debt, and Wealth
   * H - Public Economics
     * Browse content in H - Public Economics
     * H0 - General
       * Browse content in H0 - General
       * H00 - General
     * H1 - Structure and Scope of Government
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       * H10 - General
       * H11 - Structure, Scope, and Performance of Government
     * H2 - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
       * Browse content in H2 - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
       * H20 - General
       * H21 - Efficiency; Optimal Taxation
       * H22 - Incidence
       * H23 - Externalities; Redistributive Effects; Environmental Taxes and
         Subsidies
       * H24 - Personal Income and Other Nonbusiness Taxes and Subsidies;
         includes inheritance and gift taxes
       * H25 - Business Taxes and Subsidies
       * H26 - Tax Evasion and Avoidance
     * H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents
       * Browse content in H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents
       * H31 - Household
       * H32 - Firm
     * H4 - Publicly Provided Goods
       * Browse content in H4 - Publicly Provided Goods
       * H40 - General
       * H41 - Public Goods
       * H42 - Publicly Provided Private Goods
       * H44 - Publicly Provided Goods: Mixed Markets
     * H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies
       * Browse content in H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related
         Policies
       * H50 - General
       * H51 - Government Expenditures and Health
       * H52 - Government Expenditures and Education
       * H53 - Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs
       * H54 - Infrastructures; Other Public Investment and Capital Stock
       * H55 - Social Security and Public Pensions
       * H56 - National Security and War
       * H57 - Procurement
     * H6 - National Budget, Deficit, and Debt
       * Browse content in H6 - National Budget, Deficit, and Debt
       * H63 - Debt; Debt Management; Sovereign Debt
     * H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations
       * Browse content in H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental
         Relations
       * H70 - General
       * H71 - State and Local Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
       * H73 - Interjurisdictional Differentials and Their Effects
       * H75 - State and Local Government: Health; Education; Welfare; Public
         Pensions
       * H76 - State and Local Government: Other Expenditure Categories
       * H77 - Intergovernmental Relations; Federalism; Secession
     * H8 - Miscellaneous Issues
       * Browse content in H8 - Miscellaneous Issues
       * H81 - Governmental Loans; Loan Guarantees; Credits; Grants; Bailouts
       * H83 - Public Administration; Public Sector Accounting and Audits
       * H87 - International Fiscal Issues; International Public Goods
   * I - Health, Education, and Welfare
     * Browse content in I - Health, Education, and Welfare
     * I0 - General
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       * I00 - General
     * I1 - Health
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       * I10 - General
       * I11 - Analysis of Health Care Markets
       * I12 - Health Behavior
       * I13 - Health Insurance, Public and Private
       * I14 - Health and Inequality
       * I15 - Health and Economic Development
       * I18 - Government Policy; Regulation; Public Health
     * I2 - Education and Research Institutions
       * Browse content in I2 - Education and Research Institutions
       * I20 - General
       * I21 - Analysis of Education
       * I22 - Educational Finance; Financial Aid
       * I23 - Higher Education; Research Institutions
       * I24 - Education and Inequality
       * I25 - Education and Economic Development
       * I26 - Returns to Education
       * I28 - Government Policy
     * I3 - Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty
       * Browse content in I3 - Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty
       * I30 - General
       * I31 - General Welfare
       * I32 - Measurement and Analysis of Poverty
       * I38 - Government Policy; Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs
   * J - Labor and Demographic Economics
     * Browse content in J - Labor and Demographic Economics
     * J0 - General
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       * J00 - General
       * J01 - Labor Economics: General
       * J08 - Labor Economics Policies
     * J1 - Demographic Economics
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       * J10 - General
       * J12 - Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure; Domestic Abuse
       * J13 - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth
       * J14 - Economics of the Elderly; Economics of the Handicapped; Non-Labor
         Market Discrimination
       * J15 - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and
         Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination
       * J16 - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
       * J18 - Public Policy
     * J2 - Demand and Supply of Labor
       * Browse content in J2 - Demand and Supply of Labor
       * J20 - General
       * J21 - Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure
       * J22 - Time Allocation and Labor Supply
       * J23 - Labor Demand
       * J24 - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity
     * J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs
       * Browse content in J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs
       * J30 - General
       * J31 - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials
       * J33 - Compensation Packages; Payment Methods
       * J38 - Public Policy
     * J4 - Particular Labor Markets
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       * J40 - General
       * J42 - Monopsony; Segmented Labor Markets
       * J44 - Professional Labor Markets; Occupational Licensing
       * J45 - Public Sector Labor Markets
       * J48 - Public Policy
       * J49 - Other
     * J5 - Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining
       * Browse content in J5 - Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and
         Collective Bargaining
       * J50 - General
       * J51 - Trade Unions: Objectives, Structure, and Effects
       * J53 - Labor-Management Relations; Industrial Jurisprudence
     * J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers
       * Browse content in J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant
         Workers
       * J60 - General
       * J61 - Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers
       * J62 - Job, Occupational, and Intergenerational Mobility
       * J63 - Turnover; Vacancies; Layoffs
       * J64 - Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search
       * J65 - Unemployment Insurance; Severance Pay; Plant Closings
       * J68 - Public Policy
     * J7 - Labor Discrimination
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       * J71 - Discrimination
       * J78 - Public Policy
     * J8 - Labor Standards: National and International
       * Browse content in J8 - Labor Standards: National and International
       * J81 - Working Conditions
       * J88 - Public Policy
   * K - Law and Economics
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     * K0 - General
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       * K00 - General
     * K1 - Basic Areas of Law
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       * K14 - Criminal Law
     * K2 - Regulation and Business Law
     * K3 - Other Substantive Areas of Law
       * Browse content in K3 - Other Substantive Areas of Law
       * K31 - Labor Law
     * K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior
       * Browse content in K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal
         Behavior
       * K40 - General
       * K41 - Litigation Process
       * K42 - Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law
   * L - Industrial Organization
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     * L0 - General
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       * L00 - General
     * L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance
       * Browse content in L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market
         Performance
       * L10 - General
       * L11 - Production, Pricing, and Market Structure; Size Distribution of
         Firms
       * L13 - Oligopoly and Other Imperfect Markets
       * L14 - Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks
       * L15 - Information and Product Quality; Standardization and
         Compatibility
       * L16 - Industrial Organization and Macroeconomics: Industrial Structure
         and Structural Change; Industrial Price Indices
       * L19 - Other
     * L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior
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       * L21 - Business Objectives of the Firm
       * L22 - Firm Organization and Market Structure
       * L23 - Organization of Production
       * L24 - Contracting Out; Joint Ventures; Technology Licensing
       * L25 - Firm Performance: Size, Diversification, and Scope
       * L26 - Entrepreneurship
     * L3 - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise
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       * L33 - Comparison of Public and Private Enterprises and Nonprofit
         Institutions; Privatization; Contracting Out
     * L4 - Antitrust Issues and Policies
       * Browse content in L4 - Antitrust Issues and Policies
       * L40 - General
       * L41 - Monopolization; Horizontal Anticompetitive Practices
       * L42 - Vertical Restraints; Resale Price Maintenance; Quantity Discounts
     * L5 - Regulation and Industrial Policy
       * Browse content in L5 - Regulation and Industrial Policy
       * L50 - General
       * L51 - Economics of Regulation
     * L6 - Industry Studies: Manufacturing
       * Browse content in L6 - Industry Studies: Manufacturing
       * L60 - General
       * L62 - Automobiles; Other Transportation Equipment; Related Parts and
         Equipment
       * L63 - Microelectronics; Computers; Communications Equipment
       * L66 - Food; Beverages; Cosmetics; Tobacco; Wine and Spirits
     * L7 - Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction
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         Construction
       * L71 - Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Hydrocarbon Fuels
       * L73 - Forest Products
     * L8 - Industry Studies: Services
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       * L81 - Retail and Wholesale Trade; e-Commerce
       * L83 - Sports; Gambling; Recreation; Tourism
       * L84 - Personal, Professional, and Business Services
       * L86 - Information and Internet Services; Computer Software
     * L9 - Industry Studies: Transportation and Utilities
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       * L91 - Transportation: General
       * L93 - Air Transportation
       * L94 - Electric Utilities
   * M - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting;
     Personnel Economics
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       Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics
     * M1 - Business Administration
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       * M11 - Production Management
       * M12 - Personnel Management; Executives; Executive Compensation
       * M14 - Corporate Culture; Social Responsibility
     * M2 - Business Economics
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       * M21 - Business Economics
     * M3 - Marketing and Advertising
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       * M31 - Marketing
       * M37 - Advertising
     * M4 - Accounting and Auditing
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       * M42 - Auditing
       * M48 - Government Policy and Regulation
     * M5 - Personnel Economics
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       * M50 - General
       * M51 - Firm Employment Decisions; Promotions
       * M52 - Compensation and Compensation Methods and Their Effects
       * M53 - Training
       * M54 - Labor Management
   * N - Economic History
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     * N0 - General
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       * N00 - General
       * N01 - Development of the Discipline: Historiographical; Sources and
         Methods
     * N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth;
       Fluctuations
       * Browse content in N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics;
         Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations
       * N10 - General, International, or Comparative
       * N11 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
       * N12 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
       * N13 - Europe: Pre-1913
       * N17 - Africa; Oceania
     * N2 - Financial Markets and Institutions
       * Browse content in N2 - Financial Markets and Institutions
       * N20 - General, International, or Comparative
       * N22 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
       * N23 - Europe: Pre-1913
     * N3 - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income,
       Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy
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         Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy
       * N30 - General, International, or Comparative
       * N31 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
       * N32 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
       * N33 - Europe: Pre-1913
       * N34 - Europe: 1913-
       * N36 - Latin America; Caribbean
       * N37 - Africa; Oceania
     * N4 - Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation
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         and Regulation
       * N40 - General, International, or Comparative
       * N41 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
       * N42 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
       * N43 - Europe: Pre-1913
       * N44 - Europe: 1913-
       * N45 - Asia including Middle East
       * N47 - Africa; Oceania
     * N5 - Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive
       Industries
       * Browse content in N5 - Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and
         Extractive Industries
       * N50 - General, International, or Comparative
       * N51 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
     * N6 - Manufacturing and Construction
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       * N63 - Europe: Pre-1913
     * N7 - Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services
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         Services
       * N71 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
     * N8 - Micro-Business History
       * Browse content in N8 - Micro-Business History
       * N82 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
     * N9 - Regional and Urban History
       * Browse content in N9 - Regional and Urban History
       * N91 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
       * N92 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
       * N93 - Europe: Pre-1913
       * N94 - Europe: 1913-
   * O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth
     * Browse content in O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological
       Change, and Growth
     * O1 - Economic Development
       * Browse content in O1 - Economic Development
       * O10 - General
       * O11 - Macroeconomic Analyses of Economic Development
       * O12 - Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development
       * O13 - Agriculture; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Other
         Primary Products
       * O14 - Industrialization; Manufacturing and Service Industries; Choice
         of Technology
       * O15 - Human Resources; Human Development; Income Distribution;
         Migration
       * O16 - Financial Markets; Saving and Capital Investment; Corporate
         Finance and Governance
       * O17 - Formal and Informal Sectors; Shadow Economy; Institutional
         Arrangements
       * O18 - Urban, Rural, Regional, and Transportation Analysis; Housing;
         Infrastructure
       * O19 - International Linkages to Development; Role of International
         Organizations
     * O2 - Development Planning and Policy
       * Browse content in O2 - Development Planning and Policy
       * O23 - Fiscal and Monetary Policy in Development
       * O25 - Industrial Policy
     * O3 - Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change;
       Intellectual Property Rights
       * Browse content in O3 - Innovation; Research and Development;
         Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights
       * O30 - General
       * O31 - Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives
       * O32 - Management of Technological Innovation and R&D
       * O33 - Technological Change: Choices and Consequences; Diffusion
         Processes
       * O34 - Intellectual Property and Intellectual Capital
       * O38 - Government Policy
     * O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity
       * Browse content in O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity
       * O40 - General
       * O41 - One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models
       * O43 - Institutions and Growth
       * O44 - Environment and Growth
       * O47 - Empirical Studies of Economic Growth; Aggregate Productivity;
         Cross-Country Output Convergence
     * O5 - Economywide Country Studies
       * Browse content in O5 - Economywide Country Studies
       * O52 - Europe
       * O53 - Asia including Middle East
       * O55 - Africa
   * P - Economic Systems
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     * P0 - General
       * Browse content in P0 - General
       * P00 - General
     * P1 - Capitalist Systems
       * Browse content in P1 - Capitalist Systems
       * P10 - General
       * P16 - Political Economy
       * P17 - Performance and Prospects
       * P18 - Energy: Environment
     * P2 - Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies
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       * P26 - Political Economy; Property Rights
     * P3 - Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions
       * Browse content in P3 - Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions
       * P37 - Legal Institutions; Illegal Behavior
     * P4 - Other Economic Systems
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       * P48 - Political Economy; Legal Institutions; Property Rights; Natural
         Resources; Energy; Environment; Regional Studies
     * P5 - Comparative Economic Systems
       * Browse content in P5 - Comparative Economic Systems
       * P51 - Comparative Analysis of Economic Systems
   * Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and
     Ecological Economics
     * Browse content in Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics;
       Environmental and Ecological Economics
     * Q1 - Agriculture
       * Browse content in Q1 - Agriculture
       * Q10 - General
       * Q12 - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input
         Markets
       * Q13 - Agricultural Markets and Marketing; Cooperatives; Agribusiness
       * Q14 - Agricultural Finance
       * Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure; Land Reform; Land Use; Irrigation;
         Agriculture and Environment
       * Q16 - R&D; Agricultural Technology; Biofuels; Agricultural Extension
         Services
     * Q2 - Renewable Resources and Conservation
       * Browse content in Q2 - Renewable Resources and Conservation
       * Q25 - Water
     * Q3 - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation
       * Browse content in Q3 - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation
       * Q32 - Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development
       * Q34 - Natural Resources and Domestic and International Conflicts
     * Q4 - Energy
       * Browse content in Q4 - Energy
       * Q41 - Demand and Supply; Prices
       * Q48 - Government Policy
     * Q5 - Environmental Economics
       * Browse content in Q5 - Environmental Economics
       * Q50 - General
       * Q51 - Valuation of Environmental Effects
       * Q53 - Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Noise; Hazardous Waste; Solid
         Waste; Recycling
       * Q54 - Climate; Natural Disasters; Global Warming
       * Q56 - Environment and Development; Environment and Trade;
         Sustainability; Environmental Accounts and Accounting; Environmental
         Equity; Population Growth
       * Q58 - Government Policy
   * R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics
     * Browse content in R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and
       Transportation Economics
     * R0 - General
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       * R00 - General
     * R1 - General Regional Economics
       * Browse content in R1 - General Regional Economics
       * R11 - Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, Environmental
         Issues, and Changes
       * R12 - Size and Spatial Distributions of Regional Economic Activity
       * R13 - General Equilibrium and Welfare Economic Analysis of Regional
         Economies
     * R2 - Household Analysis
       * Browse content in R2 - Household Analysis
       * R20 - General
       * R23 - Regional Migration; Regional Labor Markets; Population;
         Neighborhood Characteristics
       * R28 - Government Policy
     * R3 - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location
       * Browse content in R3 - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production
         Analysis, and Firm Location
       * R30 - General
       * R31 - Housing Supply and Markets
       * R38 - Government Policy
     * R4 - Transportation Economics
       * Browse content in R4 - Transportation Economics
       * R40 - General
       * R41 - Transportation: Demand, Supply, and Congestion; Travel Time;
         Safety and Accidents; Transportation Noise
       * R48 - Government Pricing and Policy
   * Z - Other Special Topics
     * Browse content in Z - Other Special Topics
     * Z1 - Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology
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         Anthropology
       * Z10 - General
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         Stratification
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 * Issues
 * JEL
   All JEL Expand Expand
   A - General Economics and Teaching
   A1 - General Economics
   A11 - Role of Economics; Role of Economists; Market for Economists
   
   B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches
   B4 - Economic Methodology
   B49 - Other
   
   C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods
   C0 - General
   C00 - General
   
   C01 - Econometrics
   
   C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General
   C10 - General
   
   C11 - Bayesian Analysis: General
   
   C12 - Hypothesis Testing: General
   
   C13 - Estimation: General
   
   C14 - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General
   
   C18 - Methodological Issues: General
   
   C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables
   C21 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models;
   Quantile Regressions
   
   C23 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models
   
   C26 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation
   
   C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables
   C30 - General
   
   C31 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models;
   Quantile Regressions; Social Interaction Models
   
   C32 - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment
   Effect Models; Diffusion Processes; State Space Models
   
   C35 - Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models; Discrete Regressors;
   Proportions
   
   C4 - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics
   C40 - General
   
   C5 - Econometric Modeling
   C52 - Model Evaluation, Validation, and Selection
   
   C53 - Forecasting and Prediction Methods; Simulation Methods
   
   C55 - Large Data Sets: Modeling and Analysis
   
   C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation
   Modeling
   C63 - Computational Techniques; Simulation Modeling
   
   C67 - Input-Output Models
   
   C7 - Game Theory and Bargaining Theory
   C71 - Cooperative Games
   
   C72 - Noncooperative Games
   
   C73 - Stochastic and Dynamic Games; Evolutionary Games; Repeated Games
   
   C78 - Bargaining Theory; Matching Theory
   
   C79 - Other
   
   C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs
   C83 - Survey Methods; Sampling Methods
   
   C9 - Design of Experiments
   C90 - General
   
   C91 - Laboratory, Individual Behavior
   
   C92 - Laboratory, Group Behavior
   
   C93 - Field Experiments
   
   C99 - Other
   
   D - Microeconomics
   D0 - General
   D00 - General
   
   D01 - Microeconomic Behavior: Underlying Principles
   
   D02 - Institutions: Design, Formation, Operations, and Impact
   
   D03 - Behavioral Microeconomics: Underlying Principles
   
   D04 - Microeconomic Policy: Formulation; Implementation, and Evaluation
   
   D1 - Household Behavior and Family Economics
   D10 - General
   
   D11 - Consumer Economics: Theory
   
   D12 - Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis
   
   D13 - Household Production and Intrahousehold Allocation
   
   D14 - Household Saving; Personal Finance
   
   D15 - Intertemporal Household Choice: Life Cycle Models and Saving
   
   D18 - Consumer Protection
   
   D2 - Production and Organizations
   D20 - General
   
   D21 - Firm Behavior: Theory
   
   D22 - Firm Behavior: Empirical Analysis
   
   D23 - Organizational Behavior; Transaction Costs; Property Rights
   
   D24 - Production; Cost; Capital; Capital, Total Factor, and Multifactor
   Productivity; Capacity
   
   D3 - Distribution
   D30 - General
   
   D31 - Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions
   
   D33 - Factor Income Distribution
   
   D4 - Market Structure, Pricing, and Design
   D40 - General
   
   D41 - Perfect Competition
   
   D42 - Monopoly
   
   D43 - Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection
   
   D44 - Auctions
   
   D47 - Market Design
   
   D49 - Other
   
   D5 - General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium
   D50 - General
   
   D51 - Exchange and Production Economies
   
   D52 - Incomplete Markets
   
   D53 - Financial Markets
   
   D57 - Input-Output Tables and Analysis
   
   D6 - Welfare Economics
   D60 - General
   
   D61 - Allocative Efficiency; Cost-Benefit Analysis
   
   D62 - Externalities
   
   D63 - Equity, Justice, Inequality, and Other Normative Criteria and
   Measurement
   
   D64 - Altruism; Philanthropy
   
   D69 - Other
   
   D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making
   D70 - General
   
   D71 - Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations
   
   D72 - Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures,
   and Voting Behavior
   
   D73 - Bureaucracy; Administrative Processes in Public Organizations;
   Corruption
   
   D74 - Conflict; Conflict Resolution; Alliances; Revolutions
   
   D78 - Positive Analysis of Policy Formulation and Implementation
   
   D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty
   D80 - General
   
   D81 - Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty
   
   D82 - Asymmetric and Private Information; Mechanism Design
   
   D83 - Search; Learning; Information and Knowledge; Communication; Belief;
   Unawareness
   
   D84 - Expectations; Speculations
   
   D85 - Network Formation and Analysis: Theory
   
   D86 - Economics of Contract: Theory
   
   D89 - Other
   
   D9 - Micro-Based Behavioral Economics
   D90 - General
   
   D91 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive
   Factors on Decision Making
   
   D92 - Intertemporal Firm Choice, Investment, Capacity, and Financing
   
   E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
   E0 - General
   E00 - General
   
   E01 - Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and
   Wealth; Environmental Accounts
   
   E02 - Institutions and the Macroeconomy
   
   E03 - Behavioral Macroeconomics
   
   E1 - General Aggregative Models
   E10 - General
   
   E12 - Keynes; Keynesian; Post-Keynesian
   
   E13 - Neoclassical
   
   E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal
   Economy
   E20 - General
   
   E21 - Consumption; Saving; Wealth
   
   E22 - Investment; Capital; Intangible Capital; Capacity
   
   E23 - Production
   
   E24 - Employment; Unemployment; Wages; Intergenerational Income Distribution;
   Aggregate Human Capital; Aggregate Labor Productivity
   
   E25 - Aggregate Factor Income Distribution
   
   E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles
   E30 - General
   
   E31 - Price Level; Inflation; Deflation
   
   E32 - Business Fluctuations; Cycles
   
   E37 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
   
   E4 - Money and Interest Rates
   E40 - General
   
   E41 - Demand for Money
   
   E42 - Monetary Systems; Standards; Regimes; Government and the Monetary
   System; Payment Systems
   
   E43 - Interest Rates: Determination, Term Structure, and Effects
   
   E44 - Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy
   
   E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit
   E50 - General
   
   E51 - Money Supply; Credit; Money Multipliers
   
   E52 - Monetary Policy
   
   E58 - Central Banks and Their Policies
   
   E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and
   General Outlook
   E60 - General
   
   E62 - Fiscal Policy
   
   E66 - General Outlook and Conditions
   
   E7 - Macro-Based Behavioral Economics
   E71 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive
   Factors on the Macro Economy
   
   F - International Economics
   F0 - General
   F00 - General
   
   F1 - Trade
   F10 - General
   
   F11 - Neoclassical Models of Trade
   
   F12 - Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies;
   Fragmentation
   
   F13 - Trade Policy; International Trade Organizations
   
   F14 - Empirical Studies of Trade
   
   F15 - Economic Integration
   
   F16 - Trade and Labor Market Interactions
   
   F18 - Trade and Environment
   
   F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business
   F20 - General
   
   F21 - International Investment; Long-Term Capital Movements
   
   F22 - International Migration
   
   F23 - Multinational Firms; International Business
   
   F3 - International Finance
   F30 - General
   
   F31 - Foreign Exchange
   
   F32 - Current Account Adjustment; Short-Term Capital Movements
   
   F34 - International Lending and Debt Problems
   
   F35 - Foreign Aid
   
   F36 - Financial Aspects of Economic Integration
   
   F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance
   F40 - General
   
   F41 - Open Economy Macroeconomics
   
   F42 - International Policy Coordination and Transmission
   
   F43 - Economic Growth of Open Economies
   
   F44 - International Business Cycles
   
   F5 - International Relations, National Security, and International Political
   Economy
   F50 - General
   
   F51 - International Conflicts; Negotiations; Sanctions
   
   F52 - National Security; Economic Nationalism
   
   F55 - International Institutional Arrangements
   
   F6 - Economic Impacts of Globalization
   F60 - General
   
   F61 - Microeconomic Impacts
   
   F63 - Economic Development
   
   G - Financial Economics
   G0 - General
   G00 - General
   
   G01 - Financial Crises
   
   G02 - Behavioral Finance: Underlying Principles
   
   G1 - General Financial Markets
   G10 - General
   
   G11 - Portfolio Choice; Investment Decisions
   
   G12 - Asset Pricing; Trading volume; Bond Interest Rates
   
   G14 - Information and Market Efficiency; Event Studies; Insider Trading
   
   G15 - International Financial Markets
   
   G18 - Government Policy and Regulation
   
   G2 - Financial Institutions and Services
   G20 - General
   
   G21 - Banks; Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages
   
   G22 - Insurance; Insurance Companies; Actuarial Studies
   
   G23 - Non-bank Financial Institutions; Financial Instruments; Institutional
   Investors
   
   G24 - Investment Banking; Venture Capital; Brokerage; Ratings and Ratings
   Agencies
   
   G28 - Government Policy and Regulation
   
   G3 - Corporate Finance and Governance
   G30 - General
   
   G31 - Capital Budgeting; Fixed Investment and Inventory Studies; Capacity
   
   G32 - Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and
   Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill
   
   G33 - Bankruptcy; Liquidation
   
   G34 - Mergers; Acquisitions; Restructuring; Corporate Governance
   
   G38 - Government Policy and Regulation
   
   G4 - Behavioral Finance
   G40 - General
   
   G41 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive
   Factors on Decision Making in Financial Markets
   
   G5 - Household Finance
   G50 - General
   
   G51 - Household Saving, Borrowing, Debt, and Wealth
   
   H - Public Economics
   H0 - General
   H00 - General
   
   H1 - Structure and Scope of Government
   H10 - General
   
   H11 - Structure, Scope, and Performance of Government
   
   H2 - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
   H20 - General
   
   H21 - Efficiency; Optimal Taxation
   
   H22 - Incidence
   
   H23 - Externalities; Redistributive Effects; Environmental Taxes and
   Subsidies
   
   H24 - Personal Income and Other Nonbusiness Taxes and Subsidies; includes
   inheritance and gift taxes
   
   H25 - Business Taxes and Subsidies
   
   H26 - Tax Evasion and Avoidance
   
   H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents
   H31 - Household
   
   H32 - Firm
   
   H4 - Publicly Provided Goods
   H40 - General
   
   H41 - Public Goods
   
   H42 - Publicly Provided Private Goods
   
   H44 - Publicly Provided Goods: Mixed Markets
   
   H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies
   H50 - General
   
   H51 - Government Expenditures and Health
   
   H52 - Government Expenditures and Education
   
   H53 - Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs
   
   H54 - Infrastructures; Other Public Investment and Capital Stock
   
   H55 - Social Security and Public Pensions
   
   H56 - National Security and War
   
   H57 - Procurement
   
   H6 - National Budget, Deficit, and Debt
   H63 - Debt; Debt Management; Sovereign Debt
   
   H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations
   H70 - General
   
   H71 - State and Local Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
   
   H73 - Interjurisdictional Differentials and Their Effects
   
   H75 - State and Local Government: Health; Education; Welfare; Public Pensions
   
   H76 - State and Local Government: Other Expenditure Categories
   
   H77 - Intergovernmental Relations; Federalism; Secession
   
   H8 - Miscellaneous Issues
   H81 - Governmental Loans; Loan Guarantees; Credits; Grants; Bailouts
   
   H83 - Public Administration; Public Sector Accounting and Audits
   
   H87 - International Fiscal Issues; International Public Goods
   
   I - Health, Education, and Welfare
   I0 - General
   I00 - General
   
   I1 - Health
   I10 - General
   
   I11 - Analysis of Health Care Markets
   
   I12 - Health Behavior
   
   I13 - Health Insurance, Public and Private
   
   I14 - Health and Inequality
   
   I15 - Health and Economic Development
   
   I18 - Government Policy; Regulation; Public Health
   
   I2 - Education and Research Institutions
   I20 - General
   
   I21 - Analysis of Education
   
   I22 - Educational Finance; Financial Aid
   
   I23 - Higher Education; Research Institutions
   
   I24 - Education and Inequality
   
   I25 - Education and Economic Development
   
   I26 - Returns to Education
   
   I28 - Government Policy
   
   I3 - Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty
   I30 - General
   
   I31 - General Welfare
   
   I32 - Measurement and Analysis of Poverty
   
   I38 - Government Policy; Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs
   
   J - Labor and Demographic Economics
   J0 - General
   J00 - General
   
   J01 - Labor Economics: General
   
   J08 - Labor Economics Policies
   
   J1 - Demographic Economics
   J10 - General
   
   J12 - Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure; Domestic Abuse
   
   J13 - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth
   
   J14 - Economics of the Elderly; Economics of the Handicapped; Non-Labor
   Market Discrimination
   
   J15 - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants;
   Non-labor Discrimination
   
   J16 - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
   
   J18 - Public Policy
   
   J2 - Demand and Supply of Labor
   J20 - General
   
   J21 - Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure
   
   J22 - Time Allocation and Labor Supply
   
   J23 - Labor Demand
   
   J24 - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity
   
   J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs
   J30 - General
   
   J31 - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials
   
   J33 - Compensation Packages; Payment Methods
   
   J38 - Public Policy
   
   J4 - Particular Labor Markets
   J40 - General
   
   J42 - Monopsony; Segmented Labor Markets
   
   J44 - Professional Labor Markets; Occupational Licensing
   
   J45 - Public Sector Labor Markets
   
   J48 - Public Policy
   
   J49 - Other
   
   J5 - Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining
   J50 - General
   
   J51 - Trade Unions: Objectives, Structure, and Effects
   
   J53 - Labor-Management Relations; Industrial Jurisprudence
   
   J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers
   J60 - General
   
   J61 - Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers
   
   J62 - Job, Occupational, and Intergenerational Mobility
   
   J63 - Turnover; Vacancies; Layoffs
   
   J64 - Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search
   
   J65 - Unemployment Insurance; Severance Pay; Plant Closings
   
   J68 - Public Policy
   
   J7 - Labor Discrimination
   J71 - Discrimination
   
   J78 - Public Policy
   
   J8 - Labor Standards: National and International
   J81 - Working Conditions
   
   J88 - Public Policy
   
   K - Law and Economics
   K0 - General
   K00 - General
   
   K1 - Basic Areas of Law
   K14 - Criminal Law
   
   K2 - Regulation and Business Law
   
   K3 - Other Substantive Areas of Law
   K31 - Labor Law
   
   K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior
   K40 - General
   
   K41 - Litigation Process
   
   K42 - Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law
   
   L - Industrial Organization
   L0 - General
   L00 - General
   
   L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance
   L10 - General
   
   L11 - Production, Pricing, and Market Structure; Size Distribution of Firms
   
   L13 - Oligopoly and Other Imperfect Markets
   
   L14 - Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks
   
   L15 - Information and Product Quality; Standardization and Compatibility
   
   L16 - Industrial Organization and Macroeconomics: Industrial Structure and
   Structural Change; Industrial Price Indices
   
   L19 - Other
   
   L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior
   L21 - Business Objectives of the Firm
   
   L22 - Firm Organization and Market Structure
   
   L23 - Organization of Production
   
   L24 - Contracting Out; Joint Ventures; Technology Licensing
   
   L25 - Firm Performance: Size, Diversification, and Scope
   
   L26 - Entrepreneurship
   
   L3 - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise
   L33 - Comparison of Public and Private Enterprises and Nonprofit
   Institutions; Privatization; Contracting Out
   
   L4 - Antitrust Issues and Policies
   L40 - General
   
   L41 - Monopolization; Horizontal Anticompetitive Practices
   
   L42 - Vertical Restraints; Resale Price Maintenance; Quantity Discounts
   
   L5 - Regulation and Industrial Policy
   L50 - General
   
   L51 - Economics of Regulation
   
   L6 - Industry Studies: Manufacturing
   L60 - General
   
   L62 - Automobiles; Other Transportation Equipment; Related Parts and
   Equipment
   
   L63 - Microelectronics; Computers; Communications Equipment
   
   L66 - Food; Beverages; Cosmetics; Tobacco; Wine and Spirits
   
   L7 - Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction
   L71 - Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Hydrocarbon Fuels
   
   L73 - Forest Products
   
   L8 - Industry Studies: Services
   L81 - Retail and Wholesale Trade; e-Commerce
   
   L83 - Sports; Gambling; Recreation; Tourism
   
   L84 - Personal, Professional, and Business Services
   
   L86 - Information and Internet Services; Computer Software
   
   L9 - Industry Studies: Transportation and Utilities
   L91 - Transportation: General
   
   L93 - Air Transportation
   
   L94 - Electric Utilities
   
   M - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting;
   Personnel Economics
   M1 - Business Administration
   M11 - Production Management
   
   M12 - Personnel Management; Executives; Executive Compensation
   
   M14 - Corporate Culture; Social Responsibility
   
   M2 - Business Economics
   M21 - Business Economics
   
   M3 - Marketing and Advertising
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MACHINE LEARNING AS A TOOL FOR HYPOTHESIS GENERATION

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Jens Ludwig,
Jens Ludwig
University of Chicago and National Bureau of Economic Research
,
United States
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Sendhil Mullainathan
Sendhil Mullainathan
University of Chicago and National Bureau of Economic Research
,
United States
E-mail: Sendhil.Mullainathan@chicagobooth.edu
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The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Volume 139, Issue 2, May 2024, Pages
751–827, https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjad055
Published:
10 January 2024
Article history
Published:
10 January 2024
Corrected and typeset:
22 January 2024

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   Jens Ludwig, Sendhil Mullainathan, Machine Learning as a Tool for Hypothesis
   Generation, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Volume 139, Issue 2, May
   2024, Pages 751–827, https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjad055
   
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ABSTRACT

While hypothesis testing is a highly formalized activity, hypothesis generation
remains largely informal. We propose a systematic procedure to generate novel
hypotheses about human behavior, which uses the capacity of machine learning
algorithms to notice patterns people might not. We illustrate the procedure with
a concrete application: judge decisions about whom to jail. We begin with a
striking fact: the defendant’s face alone matters greatly for the judge’s
jailing decision. In fact, an algorithm given only the pixels in the defendant’s
mug shot accounts for up to half of the predictable variation. We develop a
procedure that allows human subjects to interact with this black-box algorithm
to produce hypotheses about what in the face influences judge decisions. The
procedure generates hypotheses that are both interpretable and novel: they are
not explained by demographics (e.g., race) or existing psychology research, nor
are they already known (even if tacitly) to people or experts. Though these
results are specific, our procedure is general. It provides a way to produce
novel, interpretable hypotheses from any high-dimensional data set (e.g., cell
phones, satellites, online behavior, news headlines, corporate filings, and
high-frequency time series). A central tenet of our article is that hypothesis
generation is a valuable activity, and we hope this encourages future work in
this largely “prescientific” stage of science.

JEL
B4 - Economic Methodology C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and
Methodology: General
Issue Section:
Article

© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the
President and Fellows of Harvard College.
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