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IT management   |   The Information Archipelago—Plotting a Course
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IT management


THE INFORMATION ARCHIPELAGO—PLOTTING A COURSE

A major manufacturing company eliminates its five-person information systems
planning staff, reassigning three to other jobs in the IS organization and
letting two go. The vice president for finance explained: “We just didn’t seem
to be getting a payoff from this. After three years of trying, we decided to
find a better place to spend […]
by
 * F. Warren McFarlan,
 * James L. McKenney,
   and
 * Philip Pyburn

by
 * F. Warren McFarlan,
 * James L. McKenney,
   and
 * Philip Pyburn

From the Magazine (January 1983)
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 * A major manufacturing company eliminates its five-person information systems
   planning staff, reassigning three to other jobs in the IS organization and
   letting two go. The vice president for finance explained: “We just didn’t
   seem to be getting a payoff from this. After three years of trying, we
   decided to find a better place to spend our money.”

 * For a large financial institution, a recently completed business systems plan
   was the key to setting a new direction for the amount of IS expenditures and
   how they should be invested over the next five years. “We would be lost
   without this plan,” the executive vice president for operations noted.

 * The head of IS planning of a major financial services organization, in
   discussing his recent disillusionment with planning, noted: “When I started
   IS planning two years ago, I was very enthusiastic about its potential for
   invigorating the company. It worked for a while, but now the effort seems to
   have gone flat.”

The first and third comments are typical of a number of organizations that,
after launching an IS planning effort with great hopes and apparent good
results, find the plan running into difficulty. This article shows how companies
can get better results from IS planning.

IS includes the technologies of computers, telecommunications, and office
automation. In the early 1970s, these could be planned and managed as largely
separate entities. By 1983, however, increasingly they are being managed
together—first because more and more new applications require the
interconnection of all three technologies, and second, because the project
management problems of applications using any one of these technologies are now
quite similar.

Many information systems applications continue to have the characteristics of
computer projects in the early 1970s: large cost, technical complexity, and long
systems development lead times. As these applications have grown in both size
and complexity over the past two decades, the challenge of ensuring the
availability of the needed staff, hardware, and financial resources has made the
job of planning the types and amounts of IS applications and services
increasingly important.

The best approach to planning the use of a certain IS technology depends on the
organization’s familiarity and experience with that technology. Technologies new
to the company require quite different approaches from those with which it is
familiar. Further, it is becoming clear that the impact of IS technologies on
strategy varies widely from one company to another, and these differences
influence significantly how IS planning can best be done. Finally, a number of
factors peculiar to a business, such as size, complexity of product lines, and
approach to corporate planning, help determine the best way to approach IS
planning.


PRESSURES TO PLAN

A variety of pressures make planning necessary in the information systems field.
The most important are rapid changes in technology, scarcity of skilled people
and other corporate resources, the trend toward integrated systems, and the
importance of IS to corporate goals.

Rapid changes in technology. The technical and cost characteristics of both
hardware and software have evolved rapidly, offering very different and more
profitable approaches to applications development. For example, microcomputers,
executive support systems, and end user programming systems have all brought
changes. This situation necessitates frequent meetings of the IS staff and
management groups to discuss developments that might help the company and to
generate plans to deal with them. In addition, potential users, such as office
managers or analysis staffs (often different from the traditional users of data
processing systems), must be made aware of the implications of any changes as
well as of potential problems so that they can try to find profitable new
applications in their areas of responsibility that might not occur to the IS
staff.

As the technology changes, planning becomes important to avoid a proliferation
of incompatible systems and to permit a long lead time for acquiring and
updating equipment. Also, integration of new equipment into a company’s existing
technical configuration and administration procedures often takes up to four
years. For example, one regional bank has a three-year installation program to
manage its transition from 140 on-line terminals to more than 1,600 terminals on
completion of its on-line teller network. A detailed plan was absolutely
essential to develop senior management’s confidence in the installation program
and to ensure sound operations during the implementation period.

Scarcity of corporate resources. The shortage of skilled, perceptive analysts
and programmers, coupled with the long training needed to make them fully
effective, often restrains IS development and necessitates careful planning.
These problems do not appear to be temporary but are rather long-term
difficulties that will last through the 1980s. To meet the shortage of
technicians, a growing number of U.S. companies are looking overseas for
English-speaking analysts and programmers—and they are willing to pay well to
get them.

Riding the crests of IS technology This chart shows the waves of technology as
they might appear in a company. While the company’s use of a specific technology
evolves over time, a new wave, that is, a new technological advance, is always
beginning, so that the process is continually repeated. Also, as costs of a
particular technology drop, overall costs rise because of the new waves of
innovation. Profits, however, tend to increase because of the resulting new
strategic opportunities.

Another factor critical to IS is the limited availability of financial and
managerial resources. Managers will have to make tough decisions on the
allocation of these resources. IS is, of course, only one of many strategic
investment opportunities for a company, so cash invested in it is often obtained
at the expense of other areas. Since most U.S. companies charge IS expenditures
directly against the current year’s earnings, reviews of both the effectiveness
and the efficiency of these expenditures can limit new projects, especially in
companies under profit or cost pressures.

Scarcity of IS middle managers, particularly on the development side, is also a
constraint. This has forced either large reductions in many application
development portfolios or the undertaking of projects that are unduly risky
because of inadequate human resources. Also, companies are likely to have to
obtain increasing amounts of software from outside.

Trend to integrate systems. An increasing percentage of many companies’ project
portfolios involves the design of data bases to support a variety of
applications. A long-term view of the evolution of applications is vital for
managers when selecting the content of data bases and the protocols for updating
them.

Importance of IS to corporate goals. In many organizations, new marketing
programs, new product design, and implementation of strategy depend on the
development of IS support programs. Managers need to understand these
dependencies and, if the corporate strategy is infeasible owing to IS
limitations, they must receive this message and resolve the problem while
alternatives are still workable. Understanding this linkage is more important in
organizations in which IS is integral to the corporate strategy than where IS
plays a supporting role. For example, a large paper company recently had to
abandon major new billing discount promotions, a key element of its marketing
strategy, because the staff lacked the skill to translate the ideas into
computer programs. Coordination with IS in planning sessions would have
identified the problem and fostered satisfactory solutions.


TECHNOLOGY ASSIMILATION

At different points in the evolution of an IS technology, the balance among
planning pressures shifts, and planning serves different purposes. One can
identify four phases of technology assimilation, each of which poses its own
challenge.


PHASE 1: IDENTIFICATION & INITIAL INVESTMENT

The focus of planning in the initial phase of a new technology is oriented
toward learning about the technology and how to apply it. Critical planning
considerations include deciding on an appropriate technology for study,
preparing the site, building staff skills, and supervising development of the
first applications using this technology.

In this phase, short-term technical problems are so critical and managers’
experience with the technology so limited that they often are unable to perceive
its long-term implications. This is to be expected. As the organization gains
experience, the technical issues involved in applying this technology become
better understood and the company moves into the second phase.


PHASE 2: EXPERIMENTATION & LEARNING

Planning in this phase focuses on making users conscious of the new technology
and of the types of problems it can solve as well as on sequencing projects and
coordinating them. User-supported pilot projects are the key to success. This
phase includes decisions on the numbers of staff members and kinds of skills to
acquire, the equipment to get, and the financial data to obtain to support those
projects. At this stage the plan should not seek to set the pace of events
because the company has not yet learned enough.

Our observations of successful practice at this phase suggest clearly that: (1)
planning for new technology best starts with a “rough and dirty” test to educate
IS staff and users rather than a long period of introspection concerning design
and potential benefits; (2) the critical success factors in phase 2 include
attracting the interest of potential users of the technology. For example, a
major food processor is issuing microcomputers to all middle and senior managers
for use at home. Success here should lead to more clearly articulated requests
for service.

Phase 2 technology planning has a heavy strategic thrust. However, as rapidly
growing companies in new industry sectors have found, such planning lacks
precision because both users and developers lack familiarity with the technology
and how it can best be applied. Hence planning in this phase does not have the
same predictive value as does planning for technology in a later phase. What the
technical developer thinks are the implications of the new technology often
turns out to be quite different after the users have experimented for a while.

Since technology evolves, there will usually be a phase 2 flavor to some part of
a company’s IS development portfolio.


PHASE 3: CONTROL

In contrast to phase 2, where planning has a long-range, if not terribly
accurate, scope, planning in phase 3 is dominated by short-term (one- to
two-year) efficiency and organization considerations. These include getting
troublesome development applications straightened out and completed, upgrading
staff to acceptable knowledge levels, reorganizing to develop and implement
further projects, and using the new technology efficiently.

During this phase, the planning objective is to decide on the types of
applications that are appropriate with this technology and to ensure their
cost-effective implementation. In phase 3, planning has more of a
management-control and operational-control emphasis and less of a strategic
thrust.


PHASE 4: WIDESPREAD TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

The final phase is one of managing the spread of technology to other systems
applications within the organization. In this phase, with organizational
learning essentially complete and a technology base installed with appropriate
controls in place, managers can afford to look more intensively at the future
and plot longer-term trends. The risk here is that if they are not careful, they
can extrapolate too rigidly from current business and technological trends;
unexpected quirks often invalidate the outcomes of phase 4 planning.

Because of the dynamic state of IS technology, a mix of technologies in various
phases can be found in a typical organization (see the ruled insert). In most
companies, the planning for business batch data processing, for example, is in
phase 4, while that for word processing and office automation is in phase 2.
This suggests that uniformity in planning is inappropriate because the
organization has a different degree of familiarity with each technology. The
planning approach must evolve independently for each one.

For example, one manufacturing company we studied was in phase 4 in its ability
to conceptualize and deal with improvements in its batch systems. At the same
time, it was in phase 3 in developing control over its on-line inquiry and data
input systems, whose growth had exploded in the past several years. Finally, it
had made an investment in several word processing systems and was beginning to
examine several different methods of office automation, and it was clearly in
phase 1 with respect to this technology.

In summary, the mission of IS planning varies from one technology to another.
Similarly, the approach to IS planning for different organization units within a
company should vary, since each often has quite a different familiarity with
particular technologies.


CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTATION PLANNING

As new products appear, as the competitive environment shifts, as new laws are
enacted, as corporate strategies change, and as mergers and spin-offs take
place, the priorities a company assigns to its various applications should
evolve. New applications or some projects earlier seen as having low priority
may become critically important, while others previously seen as vital will
diminish in importance. This volatility places a premium on building a flexible
framework to permit orderly and consistent change to match evolving business
requirements.


FORECASTING INACCURACIES

Every information systems planning process must make some assumptions about the
nature and role of technological evolution. If this evolution occurs at a
different rate from the one forecast (as is often the case), large segments of
the plan may have to be reworked both in scope and in thrust.

For example, if the speed of access to a 100-million character file were
suddenly increased by an order of magnitude beyond expectations with no change
in cost, most organizations’ plans would require careful reexamination, not just
concerning the priority of applications but also, and more important, their very
structure.

Some managers have used this necessity for reexamination as a reason not to plan
but rather to be creatively opportunistic on a year-to-year basis. We have found
the evidence supporting this viewpoint unconvincing.


PLANNING AS RESOURCE DRAIN

Every person’s time, or part of that time, assigned to planning diverts
resources from systems and program development. What financial resources should
be devoted to planning is still very much in question. Not only will the style
of planning evolve over time as parts of the organization pass through different
phases with different technologies but the amount of commitment to planning will
also shift accordingly. This suggests an incompatibility between the notions of
stability in an IS planning process and a creative view of the future. If not
carefully directed, IS planning tends to evolve into a mind-numbing process of
routine changing of the numbers as opposed to stimulating a sensitivity to the
company’s real problems.


STRATEGIC IMPACT

For some organizations, IS activities represent an area of great strategic
importance, while for others they will always play a cost-effective and useful,
but distinctly supporting, role. Organizations of this latter type should not
expect senior management to devote the same amount of strategic thinking to the
IS organization as will companies of the former type. In some organizations,
however, the IS function’s strategic role may greatly increase, and thus the
involvement of senior managers in planning becomes very important. The opposite,
of course, could also be true, where the strategic role of IS in the company’s
operations may diminish. Here a less intensive focus on strategic planning is in
order involving different people from the previous case.

Exhibit I identifies the following four different IS environments and shows
where some companies fit in this scheme.

Exhibit I Position of information systems in various types of companies

STRATEGIC.

Some companies, like many banks and insurance companies, are both critically
dependent on the smooth functioning of the IS activity for their daily
operations and have applications under development that are vital to their
competitive success. These companies need to do a considerable amount of
planning, and the organizational distance between IS and senior management is
very short. In fact, in some of these companies, the head of the IS function,
broadly defined, sits on the board of directors.

Comments by the CEO of a large financial institution to his senior staff capture
this perspective: “Most of our customer services and much of our office support
for those services involve some kind of systematic information processing.
Without the computer hardware and software supporting these processing efforts,
we would undoubtedly drown in a sea of paper—unless we were first eliminated
from the market because our costs were so high and our services so inefficient
that we had no customers to generate the paper. Either way, it’s clear that
information systems are critical to our survival and our success. In our
businesses, the resources that determine our marketing and our operating
performance are people and systems.”

TURNAROUND.

Although some companies may receive considerable IS operational support, they
are not absolutely dependent on the uninterrupted cost-effective functioning of
this support to achieve either short-term or long-term objectives. The
applications under development, however, are absolutely vital for the company’s
strategic objectives.

A rapidly growing manufacturing company is a good example of this. The IS
technology embedded in its factories and accounting processes, while important,
was not essential to its effectiveness. The rapid growth of the domestic and
international installations in number of products, sites, staff, and so on,
however, severely strained the company’s management control systems. To improve
them, the company strengthened IS leadership, placed IS higher in the
organization, and increased its commitment to planning. Other changes the
company can make to enhance senior management’s overview of IS include a revised
reporting structure, increased top-level participation in IS steering
committees, and more intense user involvement in establishing priorities.

FACTORY.

These companies depend heavily on IS support for smooth operations. Their
application development portfolios, however, contain maintenance work and
applications that, while profitable and important in their own right, are not
fundamental to the particular company’s ability to compete. Planning thus has a
shorter-term, more operational character and balances service, cost, and
efficiency. Some manufacturers, airlines, and retailers fall neatly into this
category. In these organizations, even a one-hour disruption in systems impairs
the performance of the business unit.

SUPPORT.

However large the IS budgets of some companies are, their operations are not
fundamentally dependent on the smooth functioning of the IS activity nor are
their application portfolios critical for the company’s strategic success. A
large manufacturing company fits this category perfectly. With a budget of
nearly $30 million a year for IS activities and a staff of more than 500, the
company was clearly getting a good return on its investment. It could operate,
albeit unevenly, in the event of major IS operational difficulties, and the
strategic impact of the application portfolio under development was limited. Not
surprisingly, IS was at a much lower organizational level than in many other
companies, and the commitment to planning, particularly in upper management, was
quite low. The director of corporate planning noted: “There is no payoff in my
spending time here. Any conceivable improvements in this department’s
performance will have a negligible impact on the company as a whole.” Our
research reveals a surprisingly large number of companies in this category.

Though the planning approach should differ for each of these environments, a gap
often exists between where an organization actually lies in the grid and where
senior management believes it to be.

The following example describes a large financial institution where managers had
such a misconception. The institution’s senior executives were comfortable with
the company’s IS performance, although it came up only infrequently on their
agenda. Its IS management team, however, was deeply concerned over the lack of
information on the company’s goals and projected products four to five years in
the future; it needed that information to provide the necessary support.

The institution is a multinational with a very sophisticated corporate planning
activity. In a world where financial institutions need constant shifts in
strategy, top executives of the company were concerned about the confidentiality
of such information, and only four or five persons knew the full scope of any
possible change. At one point recently, neither the IS manager nor his boss was
included in this group. Consequently, they could only crudely assess the future
direction of the organization by trying to guess why some projects were funded
while others were not.

Reporting to the IS manager was a full-time IS planning manager with three
assistants. For the preceding two years, the IS planners had worked closely with
middle management users and DP technologists to devise strategies and
applications portfolios that both sides saw as relevant to their needs. But
because there was little direct linkage, either formal or informal, between the
IS planning activity and the corporate planning department, the IS staff
worried. Although plans and strategies they developed might be technically sound
and meet the needs of users in middle and senior management, they could be
unproductive or even counterproductive in their ability to support the corporate
thrust. They also feared that plans developed by the company’s four or five top
executives, who were isolated from IS, might unwittingly place onerous or
crippling pressures on IS that would prevent the department from meeting future
support requests.

At this stage, senior managers saw IS as a factory, believed it was staffed and
managed well, and had no concern about its planning process. IS saw itself as
having a strategic role but was unable to sell the concept to anyone. An outside
review of the institution’s overall strategy resolved this frustration by
convincing senior managers that they had misunderstood the role of IS and that
they should treat it as strategic. Unfortunately, through all of this, IS
managers were seen as being able to run a factory but unable to tackle this new
challenge. Consequently, they failed to survive the transition.

In this company, IS planning had looked good on paper. In fact, however, it had
not taken account of the corporate environment and had left the organization at
risk of being unprepared. These failures were fatal to IS management because top
management only belatedly saw IS activities as indispensable to the
organization’s achievement of its product and productivity goals.

Determining the role of IS (see Exhibit I) is useful not just for categorizing a
company as a whole but also for characterizing the position of the various
business units inside the company, which can be at very different positions on
the grid. The actual positions of the units and the perception of where they
should be, from the perspectives of both IS management and senior management,
represent vital inputs to the design of IS planning.

Exhibit II contains a questionnaire used by one company to analyze the strategic
thrust of the development portfolio for each of its organizational units. The
answers to these questions should reveal whether the development work being done
is critical to the company’s future competitive posture or is useful but not at
the heart of what the company must do to be competitive. Similarly, Exhibit III
contains a questionnaire used by the same company to analyze the importance of
the systems for achieving the operating objectives of an organizational unit.
The company uses the sets of questions as rough diagnostic tools. Other
companies will, of course, raise different questions.

Exhibit II Portfolio analysis of projects Note: The relative weighing of these
questions varies depending on the unit’s strategic basis of competition.

Exhibit III Degree of operational dependence on IS

Exhibit IV suggests that a company’s placement in this matrix not only
influences how IS planning should be done but also has implications for the role
of the executive steering committee, organizational placement of IS, and the
appropriate type of IS management control system. Further, since different units
within a company may be at different points on the grid, the planning
organization and control approach suitable for one unit may be quite
inappropriate for another. Finally, since a unit’s position on the grid changes
over time, the planning and control approach suitable at one point may be
unsuitable at another.

Exhibit IV Strategies for IS in support and strategic roles


IS MANAGEMENT CLIMATE

In an environment of great management turmoil, turnover, and reassessment, the
effort to plan IS will probably be less intense than that in a stable
environment where turnover in key positions is low. While an unstable
environment makes execution of planning complex, it does not eliminate the need
for it. A planning approach should be tailored to the needs of a particular
situation. In no case is a general-purpose planning approach likely to be
successful.


IS PLANNING & CORPORATE STRATEGY

In thinking about the role IS should play in an organization, managers must
understand the nature of the competitive position of the company or business
unit and how it competes. The position and competitive weapons significantly
influence the degree to which IS is strategically important to a unit, the way
investments in IS technology should be considered, and the way IS planning
should be executed. To illustrate, we will discuss one of the most widely used
frameworks for competitive analysis in terms of its implications for IS
strategy. This is Michael Porter’s view as communicated in his well-known book
on competitive strategy.1

Following are the three strategies a company can adopt, according to Porter,
together with a discussion of their impact on IS as a component of corporate
strategy:

BE THE LOW-COST PRODUCER.

This strategy is appropriate for a standardized product. Maintaining operating
costs well below those of the competition can produce healthy profit increases
and a huge boost in market share. IS can have strategic value in this
environment if, for example, it can:

 * Lower labor costs—and thus the unit cost—by reducing production and clerical
   staff.

 * Reduce fixed-asset expense for each production unit by improving the use of
   manufacturing facilities through better scheduling.



 * Reduce interest and facilities costs by allowing reductions in inventory,
   accounts receivable, and so on.

 * Permit lower overall costs by reducing waste (through better matching of
   orders, materials, and machines) and making better use of lower-grade
   materials in settings where quality is not an issue.

If the company’s manufacturing and distribution technologies do not permit these
types of saving, IS is unlikely to be of strategic interest for long-term
competitiveness.

PRODUCE A UNIQUE, DIFFERENTIATED PRODUCT.

Differentiation can be created along a number of dimensions, such as quality,
special design features, availability, and special services that offer end
consumer value. For example, IS offers strategic value to this corporate
environment if:

 * It is a significant component of the product and its costs and hence an
   important differentiable feature, as in banks, brokerage houses, and credit
   card operations.

 * It has great impact on the lead time for product development, customization,
   and delivery, as do CAD/ CAM systems in many industries.

 * It permits customizing of a product to the customer’s needs in a way not
   possible before—for example, CAD/CAM in specialized textile made-to-order
   operations like men’s suits.

 * It gives a visibly higher and unusual level of customer service and need
   satisfaction that can be built into the end price, e.g., special-order
   inquiry status for key items.



If IS cannot produce such differentiable features for companies and business
units that compete on this basis, it is unlikely to be of long-term strategic
importance.

ABILITY TO IDENTIFY AND FILL NEEDS OF SPECIALIZED MARKETS.

Such markets could be geographic or have very specialized end user needs. IS
offers strategic value for these companies if it permits better identification
of special customer needs and subtle variations in the market—that is, if IS has
the ability to analyze company or industry sales data bases to spot unusual
trends. Greeting card companies, for example, could determine that three-line
verses, primarily red cards, or contemporary designs are selling well in the
Midwest and focus their sales effort accordingly. IS is also of strategic value
to companies that sell IS-intensive products, such as banks or publishing
companies.

In general, the role of IS for companies that compete in this way is harder to
identify than for those that compete under one of the first two strategies.


CORPORATE INFLUENCES

Recent research has identified four factors that influence how companies must
structure IS planning to improve their chances of success.

Status of IS manager. The IS manager’s status must suit the role IS plays or
should play in the company’s operation and strategy-formulation process. Where
IS is in a strategic or turnaround role, if its managers have low status (in
reporting level and/or compensation), they may find it hard to get the
information needed from general managers for planning. Lack of formal
communication at the top is likely to be fatal in such a setting, as IS is
outside the key communication loop. If corporate communication is formal,
appropriate committees and processes can improve the lines of communication.

For companies where information services are—and should be—in the support role,
lower status of the IS director is appropriate and less effort needs to be made
to ensure alignment of IS and corporate strategy. Further, a lower level of
investment (in dollars and in staff) in IS planning is appropriate for these
companies. The comments of a director of strategic planning for a large
process-oriented manufacturing company illustrate such a situation: “We relate
to IS by giving them insight on what the corporate goals are and what the
elements and forms are of a good planning system. Because of their role in the
company, we do not solicit feedback from them as to what the possibilities are.
The nature of their operation is such that they can provide no useful input to
the selection of corporate strategy.”

Proximity of systems group and general management team. For organizations in
which many important decisions are made informally in ad hoc sessions and IS is
playing a strategic or turnaround role, key IS management staff should be
physically close to senior line managers. Regardless of the systems manager’s
status, he or she cannot be an active member of the team in this type of
organization if he or she is physically distant. One manager in such a company
remarked, “When a problem surfaces, those people who are around and easily
accessible are those who solve it, and we don’t wait to round up the missing
bodies.”

When management communications are more formal, proximity becomes less
important. In informal organizations where IS plays a strategic or turnaround
role, even if the systems groups must be located many miles from headquarters,
IS managers, and preferably a small staff, must be at corporate headquarters.
Where IS plays a support or factory role in informal organizations, location at
corporate headquarters is much less important.

Corporate culture and management style. In organizations where the management
culture is low key and where an informal relationship exists between the systems
managers and senior management, formal IS planning procedures do not appear to
be a critical determinant of systems effectiveness. This relationship can be
enhanced (as already mentioned) by the proximity and higher status of the IS
manager. As an organization becomes more formal in its business practices, the
role of formal IS planning disciplines becomes more significant, even for
systems environments that are not complex.

Size and complexity. As organizations increase in both size and complexity and
as applications of information systems technology become wider and more complex,
companies need more formal planning processes to ensure the broad-based dialogue
that is essential to the development of an integrated vision of IS. Of course,
greater size and complexity often lead to more formal practices in general.
Where the business units are small and simple, formal planning approaches become
less important, irrespective of other factors. The same holds for the systems
environment.

These characteristics of corporate culture reveal why selection of a planning
approach is so complicated and why recommendations on how to plan for IS in
general are almost always too inflexible and prescriptive for any particular
situation.

With a better understanding of the factors that affect the formulation of IS
strategy, managers can now plan more effectively. A single methodology that
fails to take into account differences in culture, strategic impact of
technology, and organizational assimilation of IS technologies between divisions
of a company as well as between companies will not do the job. Effective IS
strategy is best described by the words “planned clutter.”

1. Michael E. Porter, Competitive Strategy (New York: Free Press, 1980).

A version of this article appeared in the January 1983 issue of Harvard Business
Review.

MORE FROM THE AUTHOR

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 * FM
   F. Warren McFarlan is the Albert H. Gordon Professor of Business
   Administration, Emeritus, Harvard Business School. He is a guest Professor at
   Tsinghua University and Co-Director of Tsinghua’s Case Development Center.
 * JM
   James L. McKenney are professors of business administration at the Harvard
   Business School, where they teach management information systems
   administration.
 * PP
   Mr. Pyburn is assistant professor of management information systems, director
   of the Information Systems Research Center, and senior research associate of
   the Asian Management Center at the Boston University School of Management. He
   is the author (with F. Warren McFarlan and James L. McKenney) of “The
   Information Archipelago—Plotting a Course” (HBR January–February 1983).

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ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


SEMASIO GMBH

Cookie duration: 366 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


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Consent


CRIMTAN HOLDINGS LIMITED

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Probabilistic
identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


GENIUS SPORTS UK LIMITED

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices,
Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


CRITEO SA

Cookie duration: 390 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices,
Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


ADLOOX SA

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location
data, IP addresses

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


BLIS GLOBAL LIMITED

Cookie duration: 400 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Probabilistic
identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


LOTAME SOLUTIONS, INC

Cookie duration: 274 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and
interaction data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’
profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


LIVERAMP

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


GROUPM UK LIMITED

Cookie duration: 395 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Probabilistic
identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


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ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


LOOPME LIMITED

Cookie duration: 90 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices,
Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


DYNATA LLC

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’
profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


ASK LOCALA

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


NEAR INTELLIGENCE

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data,
IP addresses, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


DOUBLEVERIFY INC.

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy
choices

more




View details | Privacy policylaunch
Legitimate interesthelp_outline


BIDSWITCH GMBH

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Probabilistic
identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


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Consent


IPONWEB GMBH

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


NEXTROLL, INC.

Cookie duration: 183 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses,
User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


TEADS FRANCE SAS

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location
data, IP addresses, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


STRÖER SSP GMBH (SSP)

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location
data, IP addresses, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


OS DATA SOLUTIONS GMBH & CO. KG

Cookie duration: 90 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location
data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


PERMODO GMBH

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy
choices, Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


PLATFORM161 B.V.

Cookie duration: 396 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


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Consent


ADACADO TECHNOLOGIES INC. (DBA ADACADO)

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


BASIS GLOBAL TECHNOLOGIES, INC.

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices,
Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


SMADEX, S.L.U.

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Non-precise location data, IP addresses,
User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


BOMBORA INC.

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


EASYMEDIA GMBH

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


REMERGE GMBH

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


ADVANCED STORE GMBH

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


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ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


MAGNITE CTV, INC.

Cookie duration: 366 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more




View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


DELTA PROJECTS AB

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Probabilistic
identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more




View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


USEMAX ADVERTISEMENT (EMEGO GMBH)

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


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Consent


EMETRIQ GMBH

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data,
Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


PUBLICIS MEDIA GMBH

Cookie duration: 1825 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data,
Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


M.D. PRIMIS TECHNOLOGIES LTD.

Cookie duration: 25 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location
data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices

more




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ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


ONETAG LIMITED

Cookie duration: 396 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy
choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


CLOUD TECHNOLOGIES S.A.

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


SMARTOLOGY LIMITED

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: IP addresses

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


IMPROVE DIGITAL

Cookie duration: 90 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Probabilistic
identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


ADOBE ADVERTISING CLOUD

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more




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ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


BANNERFLOW AB

Cookie duration: 366 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics, Non-precise location data,
IP addresses, Privacy choices

more




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ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


TABMO SAS

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices,
Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


INTEGRAL AD SCIENCE (INCORPORATING ADMANTX)

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction
data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more




View details | Privacy policylaunch
Legitimate interesthelp_outline


WIZALY

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


WEBORAMA

Cookie duration: 393 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data,
Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


JIVOX CORPORATION

Cookie duration: 30 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Precise location data,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy
choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


SAGE+ARCHER BV

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Non-precise location data

more




View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


ON DEVICE RESEARCH LIMITED

Cookie duration: 30 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data,
IP addresses, User-provided data

more




View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


ROCKABOX MEDIA LTD

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction
data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses

more




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Legitimate interesthelp_outline


EXACTAG GMBH

Cookie duration: 180 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, IP
addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


CELTRA INC.

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, IP addresses

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


MAINADV SRL

Cookie duration: 30 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses,
User-provided data, Privacy choices

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


GEMIUS SA

Cookie duration: 1825 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


THE KANTAR GROUP LIMITED

Cookie duration: 914 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy
choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


NIELSEN MEDIA RESEARCH LTD.

Cookie duration: 120 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


SOLOCAL SA

Cookie duration: 396 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data,
IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


PIXALATE, INC.

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses

more




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Consent


ORACLE ADVERTISING

Cookie duration: 180 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’
profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


NUMBERLY

Cookie duration: 180 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’
profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


AUDIENCEPROJECT A/S

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data,
Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


DEMANDBASE, INC.

Cookie duration: 730 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices,
Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


EFFILIATION / EFFINITY

Cookie duration: 2 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


ARRIVALIST CO.

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Non-precise location data, IP addresses

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


SEENTHIS AB

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics, IP addresses

more




View details | Privacy policylaunch


COMMANDERS ACT

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, IP addresses

more




View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


TRAVEL AUDIENCE GMBH

Cookie duration: 397 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Probabilistic
identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


HUMAN

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Non-precise location data, IP addresses

more




View details | Privacy policylaunch
Legitimate interesthelp_outline


ADLUDIO LTD.

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics

more




View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


BLENDEE SRL

Cookie duration: 366 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’
profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


INNOVID LLC

Cookie duration: 90 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy
choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


PAPIRFLY AS

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics

more




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Legitimate interesthelp_outline


NEUSTAR, INC., A TRANSUNION COMPANY

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data,
Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


VERVE GROUP EUROPE GMBH

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Browsing and
interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data,
Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


OTTO (GMBH & CO KG)

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


ADOBE AUDIENCE MANAGER, ADOBE EXPERIENCE PLATFORM

Cookie duration: 180 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Precise location data, Probabilistic
identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


LOCALSENSOR B.V.

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


ONLINE SOLUTION

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices,
Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


RELAY42 NETHERLANDS B.V.

Cookie duration: 730 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, IP addresses,
User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more




View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


GP ONE GMBH

Cookie duration: Uses session cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction
data, Non-precise location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy
choices

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


THE MEDIAGRID INC.

Cookie duration: 365 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Precise location data, Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


MINDTAKE RESEARCH GMBH

Cookie duration: 180 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, IP addresses, Users’
profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


CINT AB

Cookie duration: 730 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


GOOGLE ADVERTISING PRODUCTS

Cookie duration: 396 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’
profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


GFK GMBH

Cookie duration: 730 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, User-provided data, Privacy choices, Users’
profiles

more

Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


REVJET

Cookie duration: 730 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Non-precise location data, IP
addresses, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


PROTECTED MEDIA LTD

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Probabilistic identifiers, Browsing and interaction data, IP addresses

more




View details | Privacy policylaunch
Legitimate interesthelp_outline


ORACLE DATA CLOUD - MOAT

Doesn't use cookies.

Data collected and processed: Non-precise location data, IP addresses

more




View details | Privacy policylaunch
Legitimate interesthelp_outline


HEARTS AND SCIENCE MÜNCHEN GMBH

Cookie duration: 60 (days).

Data collected and processed: IP addresses

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


AMAZON ADVERTISING

Cookie duration: 396 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices, Users’ profiles

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


MOLOCO, INC.

Cookie duration: 730 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Non-precise location data, IP addresses

more

Cookie duration resets each session. Uses other forms of storage.


View details | Privacy policylaunch
ConsentLegitimate interesthelp_outline


ADTRIBA GMBH

Cookie duration: 730 (days).

Data collected and processed: Authentication-derived identifiers, Device
identifiers, Device characteristics, Browsing and interaction data, Non-precise
location data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


OBJECTIVE PARTNERS BV

Cookie duration: 90 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Consent


ENSIGHTEN

Cookie duration: 1825 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device identifiers, Device characteristics,
Browsing and interaction data, IP addresses, Privacy choices

more

Cookie duration resets each session.


View details | Storage details | Privacy policylaunch
Legitimate interesthelp_outline


EBAY INC

Cookie duration: 90 (days).

Data collected and processed: Device characteristics, IP addresses, Privacy
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