www.cambridge.org Open in urlscan Pro
104.17.111.190 Public Scan

Back to summary

URL:
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/trump-administration-submits-notice-...
Submission: On December 01 via api (December 1st 2024, 6:12:34 am UTC) from US — Scanned from DE

Form analysis
4 forms found in the DOM

GET /core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto

<form id="sendTokindleForm" action="/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto" method="GET">
  <fieldset>
    <legend>
      <label for="kindleEmailAddress">Your Kindle email address</label>
    </legend>
    <div class="row">
      <div class="large-6 columns">
        <input name="kindleEmailAddress" id="kindleEmailAddress" type="text" value="" required="required">
        <small class="error kindleEmailAddress" style="display:none">Please provide your Kindle email.</small>
      </div>
      <div class="large-6 columns">
        <label class="dInlineBlock"><input name="kindleEmailDomain" type="radio" checked="checked" value="free.kindle.com" class="styled"><span></span>@free.kindle.com</label>
        <label class="dInlineBlock"><input name="kindleEmailDomain" type="radio" value="kindle.com" class="styled"><span></span>@kindle.com
          (<a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/help/customer/display.html/ref=kinw_myk_wl_ln?ie=UTF8&amp;nodeId=200767340#fees" target="_blank">service fees apply</a>)</label>
      </div>
    </div>
  </fieldset>
  <div class="row">
    <div class="large-12 columns">
      <fieldset>
        <legend>Available formats</legend>
        <label>
          <input type="checkbox" name="formats" class="formats styled" value="pdf" required=""><span></span> PDF </label>
        <small class="error formats" style="display:none">Please select a format to save.</small>
      </fieldset>
    </div>
  </div>
  <div class="row">
    <div class="large-12 columns">
      <label for="usagePolicykindle">
        <input type="checkbox" name="usagePolicykindle" id="usagePolicykindle" value="Usage" required="" class="styled"><span></span> By using this service, you agree that you will only keep content for personal use, and will not openly distribute
        them via Dropbox, Google Drive or other file sharing services <small class="error usagePolicy" style="display:none">Please confirm that you accept the terms of use.</small>
      </label>
    </div>
  </div>
  <input type="hidden" name="suppressTrackingEvent" value="false">
  <input type="hidden" name="service" value="kindle">
  <input type="hidden" name="documents" value="6EE130BFAFE5654D59F948E146E24478">
  <input type="hidden" name="finalReturn"
    value="/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/trump-administration-submits-notice-of-us-withdrawal-from-the-world-health-organization-amid-covid19-pandemic/6EE130BFAFE5654D59F948E146E24478">
  <input type="hidden" name="_csrf" value="SQcD80kl-4OKm_TVaGuI0i9efZ7mT6NTswlo">
</form>

GET /core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto

<form id="sendTodropboxForm" action="/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto" method="GET">
  <div class="row">
    <div class="large-12 columns">
      <fieldset>
        <legend>Available formats</legend>
        <label>
          <input type="checkbox" name="formats" class="formats styled" value="pdf" required=""><span></span> PDF </label>
        <small class="error formats" style="display:none">Please select a format to save.</small>
      </fieldset>
    </div>
  </div>
  <div class="row">
    <div class="large-12 columns">
      <label for="usagePolicydropbox">
        <input type="checkbox" name="usagePolicydropbox" id="usagePolicydropbox" value="Usage" required="" class="styled"><span></span> By using this service, you agree that you will only keep content for personal use, and will not openly distribute
        them via Dropbox, Google Drive or other file sharing services <small class="error usagePolicy" style="display:none">Please confirm that you accept the terms of use.</small>
      </label>
    </div>
  </div>
  <input type="hidden" name="suppressTrackingEvent" value="false">
  <input type="hidden" name="service" value="dropbox">
  <input type="hidden" name="documents" value="6EE130BFAFE5654D59F948E146E24478">
  <input type="hidden" name="finalReturn"
    value="/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/trump-administration-submits-notice-of-us-withdrawal-from-the-world-health-organization-amid-covid19-pandemic/6EE130BFAFE5654D59F948E146E24478">
  <input type="hidden" name="_csrf" value="SQcD80kl-4OKm_TVaGuI0i9efZ7mT6NTswlo">
</form>

GET /core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto

<form id="sendTogoogleDriveForm" action="/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto" method="GET">
  <div class="row">
    <div class="large-12 columns">
      <fieldset>
        <legend>Available formats</legend>
        <label>
          <input type="checkbox" name="formats" class="formats styled" value="pdf" required=""><span></span> PDF </label>
        <small class="error formats" style="display:none">Please select a format to save.</small>
      </fieldset>
    </div>
  </div>
  <div class="row">
    <div class="large-12 columns">
      <label for="usagePolicygoogleDrive">
        <input type="checkbox" name="usagePolicygoogleDrive" id="usagePolicygoogleDrive" value="Usage" required="" class="styled"><span></span> By using this service, you agree that you will only keep content for personal use, and will not openly
        distribute them via Dropbox, Google Drive or other file sharing services <small class="error usagePolicy" style="display:none">Please confirm that you accept the terms of use.</small>
      </label>
    </div>
  </div>
  <input type="hidden" name="suppressTrackingEvent" value="false">
  <input type="hidden" name="service" value="googleDrive">
  <input type="hidden" name="documents" value="6EE130BFAFE5654D59F948E146E24478">
  <input type="hidden" name="finalReturn"
    value="/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/trump-administration-submits-notice-of-us-withdrawal-from-the-world-health-organization-amid-covid19-pandemic/6EE130BFAFE5654D59F948E146E24478">
  <input type="hidden" name="_csrf" value="SQcD80kl-4OKm_TVaGuI0i9efZ7mT6NTswlo">
</form>

POST /core/services/aop-cambridge-core/comments/submit

<form id="postCommentsForm" autocomplete="off" action="/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/comments/submit" method="POST" data-abide="" novalidate="novalidate">
  <input type="hidden" name="_csrf" value="SQcD80kl-4OKm_TVaGuI0i9efZ7mT6NTswlo">
  <input type="hidden" name="_pid" id="pid" value="">
  <input type="hidden" name="_cid" id="cid" value="">
  <div class="row">
    <div class="row comments-only">
      <div class="small-12 columns">
        <label for="title">Title * <input name="title" id="title" type="text" maxlength="250" required="required">
          <small class="error">Please enter a title for your response.</small>
        </label>
      </div>
    </div>
    <div class="row">
      <div class="small-12 columns">
        <label class="inline" for="comment">Contents *</label>
        <span>
          <a href="#" data-dropdown="comment-tip" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="comment-tip" class="icon info tooltip-icon info-icon">
                    <span class="sr-only">Contents help</span>
                  
                    <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 37 37" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false">
                      <circle fill="#FFF" stroke="#0072CF" stroke-miterlimit="10" cx="18.5" cy="18.5" r="17.5"></circle>
                      <path fill="#0072CF" d="M20.4 25.3V15.2h-4.9v2.2h1.1v7.9h-1.1v2.2h6v-2.2h-1.1zm-1.9-11.4c1 0 1.9-1 1.9-2.2 0-1.2-.8-2.2-1.9-2.2s-1.9 1-1.9 2.2c0 1.2.9 2.2 1.9 2.2z"></path>
                    </svg>
              </a>
        </span>
        <div id="comment-tip" data-dropdown-content="" role="dialog" aria-modal="true" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1" class="f-dropdown content medium" data-remove-focus="true" aria-label="Contents information">
          <div class="close-container">
            <a href="#" class="button small transparent-no-border radius tooltip-close-btn" id="tooltip-close-link-comment-tip">
                    <span class="custom-tooltip-button-remove">
                        <span class="sr-only">Close Contents help</span>
                      <svg width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false">
                        <defs>
                          <path d="M9.986 0C4.479 0 0 4.434 0 9.916c0 5.469 4.465 9.916 9.986 9.916 5.507 0 9.986-4.433 9.986-9.916C19.958 4.434 15.493 0 9.986 0z" id="a-comment-tip"></path>
                          <mask id="b-comment-tip" x="0" y="0" width="19.972" height="19.832" fill="#fff"><use xlink:href="#a-comment-tip"></use></mask>
                        </defs>
                        <g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd">
                          <use stroke="#436FCC" mask="url(#b-comment-tip)" stroke-width="2" xlink:href="#a-comment-tip"></use>
                          <path d="M14.778 13.325a.983.983 0 0 1 0 1.385.982.982 0 0 1-.704.28c-.254 0-.507-.098-.704-.28l-3.352-3.329-3.353 3.329a.973.973 0 0 1-.69.28 1.01 1.01 0 0 1-.69-.28.983.983 0 0 1 0-1.385l3.352-3.328-3.352-3.33a.983.983 0 0 1 0-1.384 1 1 0 0 1 1.395 0l3.352 3.329 3.352-3.329a1 1 0 0 1 1.394 0 .983.983 0 0 1 0 1.385l-3.352 3.329 3.352 3.328z" fill="#436FCC"></path>
                        </g>
                      </svg>        </span>
                  </a>
          </div>
          <p id="info-comment-tip" class="text-left">- No HTML tags allowed<br>- Web page URLs will display as text only<br>- Lines and paragraphs break automatically<br>- Attachments, images or tables are not permitted</p>
        </div>
        <textarea name="comment" id="comment" rows="5" maxlength="60000" required="required"></textarea>
        <small class="error">Please enter your response.</small>
      </div>
    </div>
  </div>
  <hr>
  <div class="title-underline">
    <h4 class="heading_03">Your details</h4>
    <div class="border"></div>
  </div>
  <section id="contributor-section">
    <div id="contributor-row_0" class="contributor-row">
      <div class="large-6 medium-12 small-12 columns left-col">
        <div>
          <label for="firstname_0">First name * <input name="firstname_0" id="firstname_0" type="text" required="required" maxlength="100" placeholder="Enter your first name">
            <small class="error">Please enter your first name.</small>
          </label>
        </div>
        <div>
          <label for="lastName_0">Last name * <input name="lastName_0" id="lastName_0" type="text" required="required" maxlength="100" placeholder="Enter your last name">
            <small class="error">Please enter your last name.</small>
          </label>
        </div>
        <div>
          <label for="emailAddress_0" class="inline-tooltip">Email *</label>
          <span>
            <a href="#" data-dropdown="comment-email-tip_0" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="comment-email-tip_0" class="icon info tooltip-icon info-icon">
                      <span class="sr-only">Email help</span>
                    
                      <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 37 37" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false">
                        <circle fill="#FFF" stroke="#0072CF" stroke-miterlimit="10" cx="18.5" cy="18.5" r="17.5"></circle>
                        <path fill="#0072CF" d="M20.4 25.3V15.2h-4.9v2.2h1.1v7.9h-1.1v2.2h6v-2.2h-1.1zm-1.9-11.4c1 0 1.9-1 1.9-2.2 0-1.2-.8-2.2-1.9-2.2s-1.9 1-1.9 2.2c0 1.2.9 2.2 1.9 2.2z"></path>
                      </svg>
                </a>
          </span>
          <div id="comment-email-tip_0" data-dropdown-content="" role="dialog" aria-modal="true" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1" class="f-dropdown content medium" data-remove-focus="true" aria-label="Email information">
            <div class="close-container">
              <a href="#" class="button small transparent-no-border radius tooltip-close-btn" id="tooltip-close-link-comment-email-tip_0">
                      <span class="custom-tooltip-button-remove">
                          <span class="sr-only">Close Email help</span>
                        <svg width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false">
                          <defs>
                            <path d="M9.986 0C4.479 0 0 4.434 0 9.916c0 5.469 4.465 9.916 9.986 9.916 5.507 0 9.986-4.433 9.986-9.916C19.958 4.434 15.493 0 9.986 0z" id="a-comment-email-tip_0"></path>
                            <mask id="b-comment-email-tip_0" x="0" y="0" width="19.972" height="19.832" fill="#fff"><use xlink:href="#a-comment-email-tip_0"></use></mask>
                          </defs>
                          <g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd">
                            <use stroke="#436FCC" mask="url(#b-comment-email-tip_0)" stroke-width="2" xlink:href="#a-comment-email-tip_0"></use>
                            <path d="M14.778 13.325a.983.983 0 0 1 0 1.385.982.982 0 0 1-.704.28c-.254 0-.507-.098-.704-.28l-3.352-3.329-3.353 3.329a.973.973 0 0 1-.69.28 1.01 1.01 0 0 1-.69-.28.983.983 0 0 1 0-1.385l3.352-3.328-3.352-3.33a.983.983 0 0 1 0-1.384 1 1 0 0 1 1.395 0l3.352 3.329 3.352-3.329a1 1 0 0 1 1.394 0 .983.983 0 0 1 0 1.385l-3.352 3.329 3.352 3.328z" fill="#436FCC"></path>
                          </g>
                        </svg>        </span>
                    </a>
            </div>
            <p id="info-comment-email-tip_0" class="text-left">Your email address will be used in order to notify you when your comment has been reviewed by the moderator and in case the author(s) of the article or the moderator need to contact you
              directly.</p>
          </div>
          <input name="emailAddress_0" id="emailAddress_0" type="text" required="required" maxlength="100" pattern="email" placeholder="Enter your email">
          <small class="error">Please enter a valid email address.</small>
        </div>
      </div>
      <div class="large-6 medium-12 small-12 columns">
        <div class="row">
          <label for="occupation_0">Occupation <input name="occupation_0" id="occupation_0" type="text" maxlength="100" placeholder="Enter your role and/or occupation">
            <small class="error">Please enter your occupation.</small>
          </label>
        </div>
        <div class="row">
          <label for="organisation_0">Affiliation <input name="organisation_0" id="organisation_0" type="text" maxlength="100" placeholder="Enter your organisation or institution name">
            <small class="error">Please enter any affiliation.</small>
          </label>
        </div>
      </div>
    </div>
  </section>
  <div class="contributor-btn">
    <input id="add-contributor-btn" type="button" class="blue small button radius add-contributor" value="Add contributor">
  </div>
  <div class="add-contributor-limit-reached">
    <hr>
    <h5 class="heading_05">You have entered the maximum number of contributors</h5>
  </div>
  <hr>
  <div class="title-underline">
    <h4 class="heading_03">Conflicting interests</h4>
    <div class="border"></div>
  </div>
  <div class="large-6 medium-12 small-12 columns">
    <p>
      <span> Do you have any conflicting interests? * <a href="#" data-dropdown="comment-conflict-tip" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="comment-conflict-tip" class="icon info tooltip-icon info-icon">
                  <span class="sr-only">Conflicting interests help</span>
                
                  <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 37 37" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false">
                    <circle fill="#FFF" stroke="#0072CF" stroke-miterlimit="10" cx="18.5" cy="18.5" r="17.5"></circle>
                    <path fill="#0072CF" d="M20.4 25.3V15.2h-4.9v2.2h1.1v7.9h-1.1v2.2h6v-2.2h-1.1zm-1.9-11.4c1 0 1.9-1 1.9-2.2 0-1.2-.8-2.2-1.9-2.2s-1.9 1-1.9 2.2c0 1.2.9 2.2 1.9 2.2z"></path>
                  </svg>
            </a>
      </span>
    </p>
    <div id="comment-conflict-tip" data-dropdown-content="" role="dialog" aria-modal="true" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1" class="f-dropdown content medium" data-remove-focus="true" aria-label="Conflicting interests information">
      <div class="close-container">
        <a href="#" class="button small transparent-no-border radius tooltip-close-btn" id="tooltip-close-link-comment-conflict-tip">
                  <span class="custom-tooltip-button-remove">
                      <span class="sr-only">Close Conflicting interests help</span>
                    <svg width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false">
                      <defs>
                        <path d="M9.986 0C4.479 0 0 4.434 0 9.916c0 5.469 4.465 9.916 9.986 9.916 5.507 0 9.986-4.433 9.986-9.916C19.958 4.434 15.493 0 9.986 0z" id="a-comment-conflict-tip"></path>
                        <mask id="b-comment-conflict-tip" x="0" y="0" width="19.972" height="19.832" fill="#fff"><use xlink:href="#a-comment-conflict-tip"></use></mask>
                      </defs>
                      <g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd">
                        <use stroke="#436FCC" mask="url(#b-comment-conflict-tip)" stroke-width="2" xlink:href="#a-comment-conflict-tip"></use>
                        <path d="M14.778 13.325a.983.983 0 0 1 0 1.385.982.982 0 0 1-.704.28c-.254 0-.507-.098-.704-.28l-3.352-3.329-3.353 3.329a.973.973 0 0 1-.69.28 1.01 1.01 0 0 1-.69-.28.983.983 0 0 1 0-1.385l3.352-3.328-3.352-3.33a.983.983 0 0 1 0-1.384 1 1 0 0 1 1.395 0l3.352 3.329 3.352-3.329a1 1 0 0 1 1.394 0 .983.983 0 0 1 0 1.385l-3.352 3.329 3.352 3.328z" fill="#436FCC"></path>
                      </g>
                    </svg>        </span>
                </a>
      </div>
      <p id="info-comment-conflict-tip" class="text-left">Please list any fees and grants from, employment by, consultancy for, shared ownership in or any close relationship with, at any time over the preceding 36 months, any organisation whose
        interests may be affected by the publication of the response. Please also list any non-financial associations or interests (personal, professional, political, institutional, religious or other) that a reasonable reader would want to know
        about in relation to the submitted work. This pertains to all the authors of the piece, their spouses or partners.</p>
    </div>
    <p></p>
    <label>
      <input type="radio" name="conflictInterest" id="frm-conflict-on" value="true" class="styled"><span></span> Yes </label>
    <label>
      <input type="radio" name="conflictInterest" id="frm-conflict-off" checked="checked" value="false" class="styled"><span></span> No </label>
  </div>
  <div class="large-6 medium-12 small-12 columns comment-more-info">
    <label>More information * <textarea name="conflictInfo" id="conflictInfo" rows="3" maxlength="500" placeholder="Enter details of your conflicting interests" disabled="false" required="required"></textarea>
      <small class="error">Please enter details of the conflict of interest or select 'No'.</small>
    </label>
  </div>
  <hr>
  <div class="row margin-top">
    <div class="large-12 columns">
      <label class="paragraph_05">
        <input name="agreeToTerms" type="checkbox" value="yes" id="agreeToTerms" required="required" class="styled"><span></span> &nbsp; Please tick the box to confirm you agree to
        our&nbsp;<a href="/core/legal-notices/terms" target="_blank">Terms of use</a>. *<br><br>
        <small class="error">Please accept terms of use.</small>
      </label>
    </div>
  </div>
  <div class="row margin-top">
    <div class="large-12 columns">
      <label class="paragraph_05">
        <input name="agreePrint" type="checkbox" value="yes" id="agreePrint" required="required" class="styled"><span></span> &nbsp; Please tick the box to confirm you agree that your name, comment and conflicts of interest (if accepted) will be
        visible on the website and your comment may be printed in the journal at the Editor’s discretion. *<br><br>
        <small class="error">Please confirm you agree that your details will be displayed.</small>
      </label>
    </div>
  </div>
  <hr>
  <div class="submit-btn">
    <input type="submit" class="blue small button radius" value="Submit">
  </div>
</form>

Text Content

Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a
better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find
out how to manage your cookie settings.

Cancel
Log in
×

Products and Services

(0) Cart

Logo for Cambridge Core from Cambridge University Press. Click to return to
homepage.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

* Browse

* Services

* Open research

Institution Login

Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date:
2024-11-29T20:39:03.406Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
* Home
* >Journals
* >American Journal of International Law
* >Volume 114 Issue 4
* >Trump Administration Submits Notice of U.S. Withdrawal...

* English
* Français

American Journal of International Law

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ARTICLE CONTENTS

* Extract

* References

TRUMP ADMINISTRATION SUBMITS NOTICE OF U.S. WITHDRAWAL FROM THE WORLD HEALTH
ORGANIZATION AMID COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Part of: AJIL Contemporary Practice of the United States

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 October 2020

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Article
* Article
* Metrics

Article contents
* Extract

* References

Save PDF
Save PDF (0.13 mb) View PDF [Opens in a new window] Save to Dropbox Save to
Google Drive Save to Kindle
Share
* Copy
* Share
* Share
* Share
* Share
* Post
* Share
* Mail
* Share

Cite Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

EXTRACT

President Trump decided in mid-April of 2020 to suspend U.S. funding for the
World Health Organization (WHO) and to have his administration review its
performance, contending that it was biased in favor of China and inept in its
handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In a letter to the WHO director-general a
month later, Trump informed the director-general that his administration's
review confirmed his accusations. He threatened that, unless the WHO implemented
significant reforms, the United States would reconsider its membership in the
organization. Less than two weeks later, on May 29, 2020, Trump announced his
decision to terminate the U.S. relationship with the WHO. On July 6, the
administration gave formal notice of U.S. withdrawal to the UN
secretary-general, the depositary for the WHO Constitution. Assuming certain
legal preconditions are satisfied and the notice of withdrawal is not revoked,
the withdrawal will take effect on July 6, 2021.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Type International Organizations
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 114 , Issue 4 , October 2020 ,
pp. 765 - 772
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/ajil.2020.76 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright
Copyright © 2020 by The American Society of International Law

The WHO was established on April 7, 1948, when the WHO Constitution entered into
force.Footnote 1 Because the WHO Constitution does not provide for
withdrawal,Footnote 2 when the United States sought membership in the WHO, the
House and the Senate stipulated in a joint resolution authorizing U.S.
membership that:

In adopting this joint resolution the Congress does so with the understanding
that, in the absence of any provision in the World Health Organization
Constitution for withdrawal from the Organization, the United States reserves
its right to withdraw from the Organization on a one-year notice: Provided,
however, That the financial obligations of the United States to the Organization
shall be met in full for the Organization's current fiscal year.Footnote 3

President Truman made explicit that he was “acting pursuant to the authority
granted by the joint resolution of the Congress . . . and subject to the
provisions of that joint resolution” when he submitted the instrument of U.S.
acceptance to the WHO Constitution.Footnote 4 A copy of the joint resolution was
enclosed with this instrument of acceptance.Footnote 5 At the First World Health
Assembly on July 2, 1948, the Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution that
“[r]ecognized the validity of the ratification of the Constitution by the United
States of America.”Footnote 6 This resolution passed after a short discussion in
which the desirability of U.S. admission to the WHO was emphasized even though,
as the UK representative put it, “[t]here [was] nothing to be gained by
attempting to deny that certain conditions are attached to the
ratification.”Footnote 7

In confronting the novel coronavirus, the WHO has faced a pandemic unparalleled
in the modern era.Footnote 8 Trump began criticizing the WHO's response to the
outbreak beginning in late March of 2020, voicing concerns that the Organization
had “very—very much sided with China.”Footnote 9 Trump's criticisms of the WHO
escalated in early April when he warned that he would be “put[ting] a hold on”
funding to the Organization because it had purportedly mishandled the
coronavirus outbreak.Footnote 10 He criticized the WHO for not declaring the
coronavirus outbreak a pandemic sooner,Footnote 11 “minimiz[ing] the threat very
strongly,”Footnote 12 announcing in January that the virus could not be
transmitted between humans,Footnote 13 and criticizing his decision to restrict
travel from China.Footnote 14 On April 14, Trump announced that he was
“instructing my administration to halt funding of the World Health Organization
while a review is conducted to assess [its] role in severely mismanaging and
covering up the spread of the coronavirus.”Footnote 15 His response immediately
drew criticism from foreign leaders.Footnote 16 Closer to home, leading
congressional Democrats described Trump's decision as an “‘abdication of
international responsibility and leadership’” and an attempt to deflect
attention from how the “‘White House . . . grossly mishandled this crisis from
the beginning, ignoring multiple warnings and squandering valuable time,
dismissing medical science, [and] comparing COVID-19 to the common
cold.’”Footnote 17

On the first day of the Seventy-third World Health Assembly held virtually on
May 18, Trump sent a four-page letter to the WHO director-general.Footnote 18 In
the letter, Trump asserted that his administration's review of the
Organization's handling of the pandemic “confirmed many of the serious concerns
I raised last month . . . especially the World Health Organization's alarming
lack of independence from the People's Republic of China.”Footnote 19 The letter
largely reiterated Trump's previous criticisms of the WHO, but in more
detail.Footnote 20 He also accused the WHO of ignoring early reports of the
virus's spread in Wuhan and not investigating the situation, improperly praising
China for its transparency despite irregularities in China's reporting of
information to the WHO, and issuing “grossly inaccurate or misleading”
information of the coronavirus.Footnote 21 Trump concluded the letter with an
ultimatum that “if the World Health Organization does not commit to major
substantive improvements within the next 30 days, I will make my temporary
freeze of United States funding to the World Health Organization permanent and
reconsider our membership in the organization.”Footnote 22

On May 29, just eleven days after sending the letter to the WHO, Trump announced
that he would be “terminating” U.S. engagement with the WHO.Footnote 23 Trump
stated:

We have detailed the reforms that it must make and engage with them directly,
but they have refused to act. Because they have failed to make the requested and
greatly needed reforms, we will be today terminating our relationship with the
World Health Organization and redirecting those funds to other worldwide and
deserving, urgent, global public health needs.Footnote 24

Then, on July 6, the Trump administration formally submitted the U.S. notice of
withdrawal from the WHO Constitution to the UN secretary-general, the depositary
for the WHO Constitution.Footnote 25 The following day, the spokesperson for the
secretary-general stated:

[O]n 6 July 2020, the United States of America notified the Secretary-General .
. . of its withdrawal from the World Health Organization, effective on 6 July
2021.

The United States is a party to the World Health Organization Constitution since
21 June 1948. The United States’ participation in the World Health Organization
was accepted by the World Health Assembly with certain conditions set out by the
US for its eventual withdrawal from the World Health Organization. The said
conditions include giving a one-year notice and fully meeting the payment of
assessed financial contributions.

The Secretary-General, in his capacity as depository, is in the process of
verifying with the World Health Organization whether all the conditions for such
withdrawal are met.Footnote 26

In a communication to the other treaty parties on July 14, 2020, the
secretary-general stated that the withdrawal “would take effect for the United
States of America on 6 July 2021 pursuant to the provisions of the Joint
Resolution of the Congress of the United States to which the acceptance of the
Constitution of the World Health Organization by the United States is
subject.”Footnote 27

After the initial announcement in late May, the director-general of the WHO
stated that the Organization “wish[es] for this collaboration to continue” with
the United States.Footnote 28 Other foreign leaders and health officials
criticized the U.S. decision. The president of the European Commission issued a
statement urging the United States to reconsider,Footnote 29 and the health
minister of South Africa labelled the decision “unfortunate.”Footnote 30 The
notice of withdrawal received strong criticism domestically, with House Speaker
Nancy Pelosi calling it “an act of true senselessness” that “is crippling the
international effort to defeat the virus.”Footnote 31 Others have observed that
the U.S. withholding of funds and withdrawal from the WHO would severely
undermine not just the Organization's short-term initiatives addressing the
COVID-19 pandemic, but also its long-term public health initiatives around the
world.Footnote 32

As a matter of international law, the United States is in a special posture
relative to other WHO member states because of the conditional right of
withdrawal that it incorporated into its original instrument of acceptance—and
because of the WHO Assembly's subsequent acceptance of this instrument. When the
WHO Constitution entered into force in 1948, international law was unsettled
with respect to withdrawal from treaties that did not provide for withdrawal or
termination.Footnote 33 In 1949, when the WHO received purported withdrawals
from the Soviet Union and various of its allies, the WHO director-general
responded that “‘because [the] Constitution of WHO makes no such provision [for
withdrawal] I cannot accept your communication as withdrawal from the
Organization.’”Footnote 34 Unlike these countries, however, the United States
reserved a right of withdrawal in its original instrument of acceptance.Footnote
35 While customary international law regarding the status of reservations and
their acceptance was not clearly fixed in 1948,Footnote 36 the unanimous
acceptance of the U.S. ratification by the WHO Assembly provides strong legal
grounds for treating this right of withdrawal as valid.Footnote 37

Although the United States thus appears to have a distinctive right of
withdrawal as a matter of international law, this right is bounded by the
prerequisites to withdrawal stipulated in the joint resolution.Footnote 38
Consistent with one of these prerequisites, the Trump administration has given a
year's notice of the U.S. withdrawal.Footnote 39 This notice could be revoked
before effectuated—including if Trump is not reelected in the U.S. presidential
election in November of 2020.Footnote 40 As to another specified
prerequisite—the provision that U.S. “financial obligations . . . shall be met
in full for the Organization's current fiscal year”Footnote 41—it remains to be
seen whether or how this will be satisfied by the United States. The United
States carries an outstanding balance with the WHO of almost $58 million in the
current year and more than an additional $41 million from prior years.Footnote
42

In addition to these international legal limitations, the Trump administration's
decision to withdraw the United States from the WHO raises issues of domestic
law. One issue is whether the executive branch can unilaterally withdraw the
United States from the WHO Constitution without congressional approval. The
United States joined the WHO not through the treaty process specified in Article
II of the Constitution, but rather “pursuant to the authority granted” by the
joint resolution passed by Congress.Footnote 43 On rare occasions in the past,
U.S. presidents have unilaterally withdrawn the United States from international
organizations that the United States joined through such joint
resolutions.Footnote 44 The legality of this practice as a matter of domestic
law remains untested in the courts.

A second set of domestic legal issues stems from the conditions on withdrawal
set forth in the text of the joint resolution.Footnote 45 As international legal
limits on the president's withdrawal power, these conditions may similarly serve
as domestic legal limits.Footnote 46 Moreover, as a general principle of U.S.
constitutional law, the president's “power is at its lowest ebb” when “tak[ing]
measures incompatible with the . . . will of Congress.”Footnote 47 Should Trump
seek to effectuate the U.S. withdrawal without fulfilling all the conditions set
forth in the joint resolution, he would be acting in violation of a
congressional mandate.Footnote 48

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

REFERENCES

1 United Nations Depository Status for the Constitution of the World Health
Organization, at
https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ShowMTDSGDetails.aspx?src=UNTSONLINE&tabid=2&mtdsg_no=IX-1&chapter=9&lang=en
[hereinafter Depository Status for the WHO Constitution].

2 See generally Constitution of the World Health Organization, opened for
signature July 22, 1946, 62 Stat. 2679, 14 UNTS 185.

3 Act of June 14, 1948, Pub. L. No. 80–643, § 4, 62 Stat. 441 [hereinafter Joint
Resolution Authorizing WHO Membership]. For more on how this provision came to
be included in the joint resolution, see Jean Galbraith, The US Cannot Withdraw
from the WHO Without First Paying Its Dues, Just Security (May 26, 2020), at
https://www.justsecurity.org/70384/the-us-cannot-withdraw-from-the-who-without-first-paying-its-dues.

4 62 Stat. 2792 (1948) (reproducing Truman's acceptance of the WHO Constitution
on behalf of the United States) [hereinafter U.S. Acceptance of the WHO
Constitution].

5 62 Stat. 2792–93 (1948).

6 Id. (reproducing a communication made by the UN secretary-general to the U.S.
secretary of state); see also World Health Assembly Res. WHA1.76, para. 1 (July
2, 1948).

7 World Health Assembly, 1st Sess., 10th plen. mtg. at 77–80 (1948), available
at
https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/85592/Official_record13_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[https://perma.cc/LXL9-Y83J].

8 Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Dir.-Gen., World Health Org., Opening Remarks at
the Member State Briefing on the COVID-19 Pandemic Evaluation (July 9, 2020), at
https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-opening-remarks-at-the-member-state-briefing-on-the-covid-19-pandemic-evaluation---9-july-2020
(calling the coronavirus pandemic an “unprecedented threat”).

9 Remarks at a White House Coronavirus Task Force Press Briefing, 2020 Daily
Comp. Pres. Doc. 190, at 11 (Mar. 25).

10 Remarks at a White House Coronavirus Task Force Press Briefing, 2020 Daily
Comp. Pres. Doc. 247, at 4 (Apr. 7).

11 Id. (“[The WHO] really—they missed the call. They could have called it months
earlier. They would have known, and they should have known.”).

12 Remarks at a White House Coronavirus Task Force Press Briefing, 2020 Daily
Comp. Pres. Doc. 250, at 5 (Apr. 8).

13 Id.

14 Id. For an analysis of the validity of Trump's criticisms at the April 8
briefing, see Aaron Blake, Trump vs. the WHO: Breaking Down the President's
Claims and the WHO's Actions, Wash. Post (Apr. 9, 2020), at
https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/04/09/trump-vs-who (noting, for
example, that the WHO had not announced in January that the virus could not be
transmitted between humans, but rather stated only that Chinese investigations
had “‘found no clear evidence of human-to-human transmission’”).

15 The President's New Conference, 2020 Daily Comp. Pres. Doc. 266, at 1 (Apr.
14); see also White House Press Release, President Donald J. Trump Is Demanding
Accountability from the World Health Organization (Apr. 15, 2020), at
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/president-donald-j-trump-demanding-accountability-world-health-organization
[https://perma.cc/G2E9-FSWL] (listing the Trump administration's criticisms of
the WHO's handling of the coronavirus pandemic and “structural issues and
necessary reforms”). As of July 2020, the United States has an outstanding
balance of almost $58 million with the WHO for the current year. World Health
Org., Assessed Contributions Overview for All Member States (July 31, 2020), at
https://www.who.int/about/finances-accountability/funding/AC_Status_Report_2020.pdf?ua=1
[https://perma.cc/3RTD-TCGJ]. Taking into account its outstanding balance from
years prior, the United States has a total outstanding balance of $99 million.
Id. In addition, the United States has historically made even larger voluntary
contributions to the WHO—contributions which from fiscal years 2012 to 2018
averaged around $254 million per year. Luisa Blachfield & Tiaji Salaam-Blyther,
Cong. Research Serv., IN11369, U.S. Funding to the World Health Organization 1
(2020), at https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN11369
[https://perma.cc/5PR2-4TSV].

16 Rick Noack, After Trump Suspends Payments to WHO, Other Countries Rally
Behind the Agency, Wash. Post (Apr. 15, 2020), at
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-trump-suspends-payments-to-who-other-countries-rally-behind-the-agency/2020/04/15/1a2ec7c6-7f0e-11ea-84c2-0792d8591911_story.html
(reporting that officials from the EU, Iran, New Zealand, and Russia criticized
the decision, while other officials reaffirmed their support for the WHO).

17 Justin Wise, Democrats Blast Trump's Move to Suspend WHO Funding, The Hill
(Apr. 14, 2020), at
https://thehill.com/homenews/House/492839-democrats-blast-trump-move-to-suspend-who-funding
(quoting Representative Karen Bass and Senator Patrick Leahy).

18 Letter from Donald J. Trump, President of the United States, to Tedros
Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Dir.-Gen., World Health Org. (May 18, 2020), available at
https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Tedros-Letter.pdf
[https://perma.cc/2YXG-8GDT] [hereinafter U.S. Letter to the WHO]. Although
Trump was invited to speak at the Seventy-third World Health Assembly, he
declined the request. Gerry Shih, Emily Rauhala & Josh Dawsey, China's Xi Backs
WHO-Led Review of COVID-19 Outbreak, Wash. Post (May 18, 2020), at
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-xi-backs-who-led-review-of-covid-19-outbreak-proposes-aid-for-developing-world/2020/05/18/911a1544-98df-11ea-ad79-eef7cd734641_story.html.

19 U.S. Letter to the WHO, supra note 18, at 1; but see Pien Huang,
Fact-Checking and Assessing Trump's Letter of Rebuke to WHO, NPR (May 20, 2020),
at
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/05/20/858911395/fact-checking-and-assessing-trumps-letter-of-rebuke-to-who
(critiquing the accuracy of various claims in the letter).

20 U.S. Letter to the WHO, supra note 18, at 1–4.

21 Id. at 1–3. In addition to these criticisms of the WHO's handling of the
pandemic, the Trump administration has also condemned the Organization for
excluding Taiwan from the World Health Assembly, accusing the director-general
of yielding to pressure from Beijing. Michael R. Pompeo, Sec'y of State Press
Release, Taiwan's Exclusion from the World Health Assembly (May 18, 2020), at
https://www.state.gov/taiwans-exclusion-from-the-world-health-assembly
[https://perma.cc/AQ7X-5QZC].

22 U.S. Letter to the WHO, supra note 18, at 4. At the World Health Assembly,
U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar leveled further criticisms
against the WHO, attributing the scale of the pandemic to the WHO's “failure . .
. to obtain the information that the world needed, and that failure cost many
lives.” Plenary Statement from U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex
M. Azar II to the World Health Assembly, at 1, at
https://apps.who.int/gb/statements/WHA73/PDF/United_States_of_America.pdf
[https://perma.cc/G26H-S6WP].

23 Remarks on United States Actions Against China, 2020 Daily Comp. Pres. Doc.
No. 405, at 1 (May 29).

24 Id.

25 Stéphan Dujarric, Spokesman for the Sec'y-Gen. Press Release, Note to
Correspondents in Answer to Questions Regarding the World Health Organization
(July 7, 2020), at
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2020-07-07/note-correspondents-answer-questions-regarding-the-world-health-organization
[https://perma.cc/3KVN-SVS3] [hereinafter UN Acknowledgement of U.S. Notice of
Withdrawal].

26 Id.

27 United Nations, Depository Notification C.N.302.2020.TREATIES-IX.1 (July 14,
2020), available at
https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/CN/2020/CN.302.2020-Eng.pdf [hereinafter
Depository Notification].

28 Pien Huang, WHO's Measured Reaction to Trump's Pledge to Cut U.S. Ties to the
Agency, NPR (June 1, 2020), at
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/05/29/865816855/whos-muted-reaction-to-trumps-pledge-to-withdraw-u-s-from-the-u-n-agency.

29 European Commission Press Release, STATEMENT/20/983, US Announcement on
Breaking Ties with the World Health Organisation: Statement by the President of
the Commission Ursula Von Der Leyen and High Representative/Vice-President Josep
Borrell (May 30, 2020), at
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/STATEMENT_20_983
[https://perma.cc/5MHX-YJWW].

30 Karla Adam, Trump's Exit from WHO Met with Dismay from Global Health Experts,
Wash. Post (May 30, 2020), at
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/trump-world-health-organization-criticism/2020/05/30/a9650984-a26b-11ea-be06-af5514ee0385_story.html.

31 Nancy Pelosi (@SpeakerPelosi), Twitter (July 7, 2020 5:20 PM), at
https://twitter.com/SpeakerPelosi/status/1280612714570813448; see also
Coronavirus: Backlash After Trump Signals US Exit from WHO, BBC (May 30, 2020),
at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52862588 (reporting that Republican
Senator Lamar Alexander and Democratic Senator Elizabeth Warren both issued
statements criticizing Trump's announcement of the termination of U.S. relations
with the WHO).

32 See, e.g., Freezing World Health Organization Funding is Dangerous, 580
Nature 431, 431 (2020) (arguing that the loss in U.S. funding threatens the
WHO's ability to work on its more than thirty-five emergency operations around
the world and other ongoing programs targeting infectious diseases); see also
Elijah Wolfson, Trump Said He Would Terminate the U.S. Relationship with the
W.H.O. Here's What That Means, Time (June 4, 2020), at
https://time.com/5847505/trump-withdrawl-who (noting that withdrawal from the
WHO not only undermines WHO programs on “tropical disease research, HIV and
hepatitis, and tuberculosis,” but would also hinder U.S. public health
researchers’ access to internally shared data among WHO members).

33 Laurence R. Helfer, Terminating Treaties, in The Oxford Guide to Treaties
634, 637–40 (Duncan B. Hollis ed., 2012) (noting that even in the late 1950s
before the codification of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, there
were various views among international law jurists on whether states could
withdraw from treaties without provisions for termination or withdrawal). The
Vienna Convention later came to provide that, where a treaty does not include a
withdrawal provision, withdrawal is only available in certain contexts, such as
if “the parties intended to admit the possibility of denunciation or withdrawal;
or a right of denunciation or withdrawal may be implied by the nature of the
treaty.” Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 56, opened for signature
May 23, 1969, 1155 UNTS 331 [hereinafter VCLT].

34 Edwin C. Hoyt, The Unanimity Rule in the Revision of Treaties: A
Re-examination 70–71 (2012) (discussing this incident, including the later
return of these countries to active participation in the WHO, and quoting a
communication by the director-general); see also Brölmann, Catherine M.,
Collins, Richard & Wessel, Ramses A., Exiting International Organizations: A
Brief Introduction, 15 Int'l Orgs. L. Rev. 243, 249 (2018)Google Scholar
(footnote omitted) (“Practice is not entirely conclusive as to the consequences
of these notifications, but arguably suggests that such withdrawal is unlawful,
or in any case without legal effect”). That the WHO considered these members
inactive is reflected in the resolution passed at the Third World Health
Assembly. World Health Assembly Res. WHA3.84, para. 3 (May 19, 1950) (emphasis
added) (“Resolves that . . . the World Health Organization will always welcome
the resumption by these Members of full co-operation in the work of the
Organization . . . .”). The United Nations depository status page for the WHO
Constitution indicates that Russia joined the WHO on March 24, 1948, rather than
when the Soviet Union announced it was rejoining the Organization in July 1955.
Depository Status for the WHO Constitution, supra note 1. Similarly, the
Republic of China sought withdrawal from the WHO in May 1950, to which the
Assembly resolved that “resumption by China of full participation in the work of
the Organization will be welcomed.” World Health Assembly Res. WHA3.90, paras.
1, 4 (May 25, 1950) (emphasis added). When the Republic of China rejoined the
WHO, the Assembly “welcome[d] the return of China to active participation.”
World Health Assembly Res. WHA6.6, para. 1 (May 15, 1953) (emphasis added).

35 See U.S. Acceptance of the WHO Constitution, supra note 4 (conditioning the
U.S. acceptance on the provisions set forth in Congress's joint resolution).

36 See Report of the International Law Commission to the General Assembly, 21 UN
GAOR Supp. No. 9, at 35, UN Doc. A/6309/Rev.1 (1966), reprinted in [1966] 2 Y.B.
Int'l L. Comm'n 203, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/1966/Add.1 (footnotes omitted) (noting
that “[t]he subject of reservations to multilateral treaties has been much
discussed in recent years and has been considered by the General Assembly itself
on more than one occasion, as well as by the International Court of Justice . .
.”).

37 This process conformed with the procedure that would later be set out in the
VCLT. See VCLT, supra note 33, Art. 20.3 (providing that “[w]hen a treaty is a
constituent instrument of an international organization and unless it otherwise
provides, a reservation requires the acceptance of the competent organ of that
organization”).

38 See Depository Notification, supra note 27.

39 See Joint Resolution Authorizing WHO Membership, supra note 3, § 4; UN
Acknowledgement of U.S. Notice of Withdrawal, supra note 25.

40 Revoking a notice of withdrawal before it takes legal effect is permissible
under international law. See VCLT, supra note 33, Art. 68. Joe Biden, the
Democratic presidential nominee, has announced that he would return the United
States to the WHO on the first day of his presidency. Joe Biden (@JoeBiden),
Twitter (July 7, 2020, 4:44 PM), at
https://twitter.com/JoeBiden/status/1280603719831359489.

41 Joint Resolution Authorizing WHO Membership, supra note 3, § 4.

42 Assessed Contributions Overview for All Member States, supra note 15; see
also Brandon J. Murrill & Nina M. Hart, Cong. Research Serv., LSB10489,
Withdrawal from the World Health Organization: Legal Basis and Implications 3
(2020), at https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/LSB/LSB10489 (observing
that “[i]t is unclear whether the ‘current fiscal year’ [language from in the
joint resolution] refers to the fiscal year in which the United States submits a
twelve-month notice of intent to withdraw or the fiscal year in which the
twelve-month notice period expires” but that “[i]n either case . . . it would
appear that the notice cannot legally take effect until the United States pays
all current obligations”).

43 U.S. Acceptance of the WHO Constitution, supra note 4.

44 Bradley, Curtis A., Exiting Congressional-Executive Agreements, 67 Duke L.J.
1615, 1639 & nn. 98, 99 (2018)Google Scholar (noting that this occurred with
respect to the International Labor Organization (ILO) and twice with respect to
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)).
With respect to both the ILO and the first UNESCO withdrawal, subsequent
presidents rejoined the United States to these international organizations
without reobtaining congressional approval. See id.

45 Joint Resolution Authorizing WHO Membership, supra note 3, § 4. Additionally,
Congress could further challenge the withdrawal by legislating to prevent
withdrawal. See A Bill to Prohibit the Use of Funds to Withdraw the United
States from the World Health Organization, S. 4240, 116th Cong. § 4 (2020)
(proposing that Congress prohibit the Trump administration from using
congressional appropriated funds to withdraw from the WHO). In the absence of a
supermajority of support in both houses of Congress, however, such a bill would
be difficult to enact given the president's veto power.

46 With respect to treaties entered into pursuant to the process set forth in
Article II of the U.S. Constitution, the Restatement (Fourth) of Foreign
Relations Law indicates that the “established practice” of unilateral
presidential treaty withdrawal is limited to situations where this withdrawal is
justified under international law. Restatement (Fourth) of Foreign Relations Law
§ 313 (2018); see also id., § 313 reporters’ note 5 (noting that, in contrast,
“withdrawals that fail . . . to identify [a] justification under international
law . . . assert an authority that the Senate likely did not contemplate when
approving the treaty”).

47 Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, 637 (1952) (Jackson, J.,
concurring).

48 See Murrill & Hart, supra note 42, at 3 (observing that “the President
arguably may lack the authority to withdraw from the WHO if he does not adhere
to these conditions because Congress enacted them using its constitutional
Spending Clause power”); cf. Restatement (Fourth) of Foreign Relations Law,
supra note 46, § 313 reporters’ note 6 (noting that if the power to withdraw
from Article II treaties is not exclusive to the president, Congress may have
the power to limit withdrawals through statutes).

You have Access
1 Cited by

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

www.cambridge.org Open in urlscan Pro 104.17.111.190 Public Scan

Form analysis 4 forms found in the DOM

GET /core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto

GET /core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto

GET /core/services/aop-cambridge-core/sendto

POST /core/services/aop-cambridge-core/comments/submit

Text Content

www.cambridge.org Open in urlscan Pro
104.17.111.190 Public Scan

Form analysis
4 forms found in the DOM