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Submitted URL: https://go.coherent.com/e/191222/uh9/n6kjjm/2106839298?h=1thFrJIp7mwgkb2ZY0nKm1NlN3Rb-wGJ6ReCFniR9n4
Effective URL: https://www.coherent.com/news/glossary/astronomy-lasers?utm_source=newsletter&utm_campaign=scientific&utm_content=Astrono...
Submission: On August 02 via api from US — Scanned from DE
Effective URL: https://www.coherent.com/news/glossary/astronomy-lasers?utm_source=newsletter&utm_campaign=scientific&utm_content=Astrono...
Submission: On August 02 via api from US — Scanned from DE
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2. > Newsroom
3. > Glossary
4. > Astronomy Lasers
ASTRONOMY LASERS
WHAT ARE ASTRONOMY LASERS?
Lasers have become an essential tool for astronomers, enabling more precise
observations of celestial objects. In particular, they make it possible to
create better images of distant stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects
than previously possible.
Lasers are used in several distinct areas in astronomy. Most commonly, they are
employed in various techniques to improve the imaging quality and capabilities
of large astronomical telescopes. But they are also key to gravitational wave
sensing, as well as other applications.
LASER GUIDE STARS
One major limitation in forming high-resolution images of celestial objects with
telescopes is the blurring effects of the Earth's atmosphere. In particular,
turbulence and temperature variations in the air column above the telescope
distort the wavefront of light coming from astronomical objects, making it
impossible to form perfectly sharp images of them.
One way to minimize or avoid this entirely is to place telescopes on very high
mountain peaks, or out into space. But the performance of telescopes located on
even the tallest terrestrial mountains is still significantly limited by what is
called “astronomical seeing.”
One method astronomers have developed to minimize the problem of astronomical
seeing is adaptive optics (AO). This uses a flexible or deformable mirror in the
telescope optical path to adjust the shape of the wavefront in real-time to
correct for the atmospheric distortions.
Adaptive optics utilize the fact that stars are so distant to us that they
appear to be point sources producing a perfectly flat wavefront. So, we measure
the actual wavefront from a star and calculate how far it departs from being
flat. Then, this information is used to tell a deformable mirror how to change
shape in order to correct the wavefront and restore it to being flat.
Adaptive optics systems can make thousands of adjustments per second to
compensate for the rapidly changing atmospheric distortions. This results in
much sharper and more detailed images of celestial objects compared to
traditional telescopes.
But AO systems need a fairly bright star in order to work properly. Depending
upon where the telescope is pointed in the sky, there may or may not be a
sufficiently bright star within the field of view. If there isn’t, then an
artificial guide star can be created by shining a laser into the atmosphere. The
laser guide star (LGS) can then be used as a reference wavefront for the
adaptive optics system.
There are two distinct approaches to actually creating an LGS, and many
variations in how each is actually implemented. The most widely used technique
utilizes a laser that emits at 589 nm to excite sodium atoms that exist at an
altitude of about 90 km in the atmosphere. The sodium atoms absorb and then
re-emit the laser light creating the LGS.
The second method relies on what is called a “Rayleigh beacon.” This approach
typically uses an ultraviolet laser to produce light scattering from molecules
from about 15 – 25 km up in the atmosphere. While Rayleigh beacons are simpler
and less costly to construct, they don’t provide a wavefront reference that is
as good as the sodium LGS approach. This is because the Rayleigh beacon LGS
appears much lower in the atmosphere, and therefore doesn’t experience precisely
the same distortion as light coming from astronomical objects.
MULTIPLE TELESCOPE INTERFEROMETRY
Another way to improve telescope image quality is to make the aperture bigger.
This is because the larger the telescope, the lower the negative effects of
light diffraction on image quality. A larger telescope can therefore produce
more detailed and brighter images.
But, on the practical side, there are limits to how large we can construct
telescopes. One way around this is to combine the light from multiple telescopes
to simulate a larger, and therefore higher-resolution, instrument.
To combine their light, the telescopes must be in close physical proximity.
Then, the individual beams must be combined with extraordinary accuracy.
Specifically, the distance from each telescope to the point of recombination
must be the same to within a small fraction of the wavelength of light. For
visible light, the wavelength is about 0.5 µm.
But, even if the optical paths for each telescope are nominally identical,
real-world effects of thermal expansion and vibration will produce time varying
errors in the total path length that are far larger than the required value. To
correct for this, “delay lines” are used in the beam path for each telescope.
These allow the total path length for each to be minutely and highly accurately
adjusted in order in order to keep all the distances exactly the same.
There are a variety of different for schemes for implementing delay lines when
combining multiple large telescopes. Frequently, these involve bouncing the beam
off mirrors which are mounted on rails. This allows them to be moved along the
optical axis. Changing the mirror position adjusts the length of the delay
line.
Key to the success of this technique is the ability to measure the position of
the mirrors with an accuracy that is a fraction of the wavelength – a few tens
of nanometers for visible light. Distance measurement based on laser
interferometry provides the ultimate and most sensitive means for accomplishing
this. Typically, this uses low power, CW, visible wavelength lasers with a
relatively narrow linewidth. This provides the coherence length needed to
perform interferometry over a path length of several meters or more.
OTHER ASTRONOMY APPLICATIONS FOR LASERS
There are quite a number of other uses for lasers within astronomy. For example,
laser interferometry also forms the forms the basis for gravity wave astronomy.
But, in the case of the Laser Interferometry Gravitational-Wave Observatory
(LIGO) – actually two separate observatories located in Hanford, WA, and
Livingston, LA – the precision and sensitivity is far beyond anything achieved
before.
Each of these facilities utilizes an L-shaped interferometer with arms that are
approximately 4 km long. LIGO is sensitive enough to measure a change in path
difference between the two interferometer legs to a distance that is less than
1/1000 the diameter of a proton. This is what is necessary to measure the
gravitational waves – the small ripples in spacetime – that are produced when
black holes collide.
LIGO actually incorporates quite a number of lasers and laser amplifiers. The
main beam for the interferometer is produced by a Coherent Mephisto. This laser
was chosen because it uses a non-planar ring oscillator (NRPO), which is widely
recognized as the lowest noise and narrowest linewidth CW laser architecture.
The output of the Mephisto goes through several stages to amplify it, reduce its
noise, and stabilize its frequency, power and transverse mode structure.
Lasers are also routinely used to measure the distance from the Earth to the
Moon. They do this by bouncing laser pulses off arrays of retroreflecting
mirrors left on the lunar surface by three of the Apollo missions, as well as
two subsequent Russian lunar rovers. The time of flight or the journey is used
to calculate the distance, and precisions of just a few millimeters can be
obtained.
Lasers have also made it to Mars on NASA’s Perseverance rover. It uses a laser
to vaporize small amounts of Martian rocks. This creates a plasma which emits
light. Spectroscopic analysis of this light reveals the chemical composition of
the rock.
Figure 1. A series of holes created in a Martian rock by the laser on the NASA
Mars Perseverance rover. Photo NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU.
Overall, astronomy lasers play an important role in the advancement of research
and observation. They will likely continue to play a key role in the
development of new technologies in the years to come.
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