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Home > Catholic Encyclopedia > E > Europe


EUROPE

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NAME

The conception of Europe as a distinct division of the earth, separate from Asia
and Africa, had its origin in ancient times. The sailors of the Aegean Sea
applied the Semitic designations Ereb (sunset, west) and Acu (sunrise, east) to
the countries lying respectively west and east of the sea; in this way it became
customary to call Greece and the territory back of it Europe, while Asia Minor
and the parts beyond were named Asia. At a later date the mass of land lying to
the south of the Mediterranean was set off as a distinct division of the earth
with the name of Libya or Africa.


POSITION, BOUNDARIES, AND AREA

Europe is a large peninsula forming the western part of the northern continent
of the Eastern Hemisphere. On the north and west it is separated from North
America by the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans; on the south by the
Mediterranean Sea from Africa and Western Asia. In the east there is no clear
natural division from the continental mass of Asia. Such a dividing line may be
drawn along the crest of the Ural and Mugadzhar Mountains, the Emba River,
Caspian Sea, and the lowlands of the Manitch River, or through the depression
that, starting from the Gulf of Obi, extends through the valleys of the Obi,
Irtysh, Tobol, and Emba Rivers. The political boundary extends beyond the Ural
Mountains towards the east, and beyond the Ural River to the south and west runs
along the range called Obtschei Syrt and the Usen River, and encloses within the
eastern boundary of Europe the whole of the Caucasus. The most northern point of
Europe is North Cape (71 deg. 12 min. N. lat.) on the Island of Mageroe
belonging to Norway; the most western point is Cape da Roca (9 deg. 31 min. west
of Greenwich) in Portugal; the most southern is Cape Tarifa (35 deg. 59 min. 53
sec. N.) in Spain; the Continent extends as far to the east as 65 deg. longitude
east of Greenwich. Its greatest length from north to south is 2,398 miles, from
west to east, 3,455 miles. The statement as to the extent of its area varies,
according to the position assigned to its eastern boundary, from 3,672,969 sq.
miles to 4,092,660 sq. miles. This measurement includes the polar islands
Iceland, Nova Zembla, and Spitzbergen, but not the Canary, Madeira, and Azores
Islands.




GEOLOGICAL FORMATION

Three leading tectonic divisions are to be distinguished in the geological
formation of Europe. These appeared in the middle Tertiary period. Western
Europe, as far south as the Alps, the Pyrenees, and, reaching beyond the
Pyrenees, into the Spanish Peninsula, to the east as far as the Baltic and the
Vistula River, is formed of debris and sedimentary deposits. This has been
produced by the breaking up and overflowing with water of mountain chains that
now exist as secondary ranges, as the Scotch Highlands, the central plateau of
France, and the mountain chain of Central Germany. Towards the east is low-lying
land that has remained the same from early times. Sweden and Finland form
together a great level called the Plain of the Baltic, south-east from which
spreads the great Russian plain which is limited by the Ural and Carpathian
Mountains, the Crimea, and the Caucasus Mountains. The whole of Southern Europe
and a part of Middle Europe is a region of late folded mountain ranges. These
begin with the Pyrenees, which have remarkable spurs in the ranges of Provence,
in Corsica, and Sardinia. The ranges of Andalusia in Southern Spain find their
continuation in the Atlas range, which bends to the east and reappears in Europe
in the mountains of the northern coast of Sicily and the Apennines. The
northwestern Apennines pass into the Alpine system. In the east the Alps are
divided into three chains; of these the middle one passes into the Hungarian
plain; the Carpathian and Balkan ranges unite in a great bend with the northern
chain, and the southern one is continued by the Dinaric Alps and the western
chains of the Balkan Peninsula as far as Crete and the south-western part of
Asia Minor. Numerous islands belong to the Continent of Europe. The separation
of the islands from the mainland arose in two ways. In the north and west, the
encroachment of the sea produced bays and peninsulas and formed islands. In the
south, the western and eastern basins of the Mediterranean, those of the
Adriatic and Aegean Seas, the Sea of Marmora, and the southern part of the Black
and Caspian Seas, were formed by folding; and in this way also were formed the
Iberian, Italian, and Balkan Peninsulas and the archipelago lying between Greece
and Asia Minor. The rivers of Europe belong to three different basins, namely,
to the Caspian Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean and Black
Seas, and the Arctic Ocean. The courses of the rivers of Europe are much shorter
than the courses of those of Asia, Africa, or America. The largest of the
European rivers, the Volga (1,978 miles), the Danube (1,771 miles), Dnieper
(1,329 miles), Don (1,120 miles), Petchora (1,023 miles), and the Dniester (835
miles), flow into seas that are almost entirely cut off from the ocean,
consequently from the world's traffic. They offer, however, little obstruction
to navigation, and numerous canals are cut through the main watershed that
extends from Gibraltar to the northern Urals. The largest number of lakes is
found in the region, formerly covered with glaciers, lying north of 50 deg. N.
lat. — Finland, Scandinavia, Scotland, and Ireland, and the region of the Alps.
Besides this lake region, lakes have also been formed in the Alps by folding, in
the Balkan by the breaking in of the surface, and in the Apennine Peninsula by
volcanic outbreaks.


CLIMATE, FLORA, FAUNA

The climatic conditions of Europe are very favourable. Almost the entire
continent, excepting the northern point, belongs to the temperate zone. At the
same time it is much warmer than other countries in the same latitude, as, for
instance, than eastern North America, because along its western coast flows the
Gulf Stream, which leaves the coast of Florida with a temperature of 68 deg.
Fahr. and raises the normal temperature on the Portuguese and Spanish coast
about 7.2 Fahr. deg., of the British coast by 9 to 14.4 Fahr. deg., and of the
Norwegian coast, about 14.4 to 18 Fahr. deg. Since there is no chain of
mountains traversing Europe from north to south, as is the case with North
America, the influence of the Gulf Stream extends far into the interior of the
mainland. On the borders of the Arctic Ocean a rigorous climate prevails, summer
is short, and during the greater of the year the temperature is below freezing.
This northern region has polar vegetation; the rolling plains called tundras are
found on the peninsulas of Kanin and Kola and at the mouth of the Petchora. The
sub-arctic zone is found south of this in the Scandinavian Peninsula down to 60
deg. N. lat.; here the climate of the coast, influenced by the sea, in milder in
winter and cool in summer. The part of Europe properly included in the temperate
zone is divided into the following regions: the countries lying on the Atlantic,
Great Britain, Brittany, the Channel, and northwestern Spain; this section has
moderate temperature and large rainfall; west and middle Europe, with an inland
climate, less heavy rainfall (about 19.7 inches), and moderate changes of
temperature (27 to 45 Fahr. deg.); in this section the southern part of France
forms an exception, as also the depression of the Upper Rhine, and the
mountains. Beyond this is the section of Eastern Europe or Russia, with a
completely inland climate, the variations of temperature amounting to 45 Fahr.
deg., and the rainfall to less than 23.6 inches. Finally comes the section of
the Euxine comprising the great Hungarian plain, the plain of the Balkan
provinces, and southern Russia; in this division the spring is moist and warm
and midsummer, hot and dry. The depression of the Caspian belongs to the dry
zone of Asia.



The forests of Europe flourish in the temperate zone. In Norway they are
composed chiefly of pine; the only deciduous tree found in the highest latitudes
is the birch (betula odorata); the forests of pines and deciduous trees are
found south of 61 deg. N. lat.; this region is further characterized by
grass-lands, heaths, and moors. The cultivated land, which in Central and
Western Europe is about sixty to seventy per cent, is divided into farm land,
cultivated forest land, grass and pasture land. From north to south the
succession of grains is as follows: barley, rye and oats, wheat, especially in
France and Hungary, and maize. Potatoes are cultivated on less fruitful soil. In
this region native fruits are the apple, pear, and cherry; finer kinds of fruit
trees, as the peach, apricot, plum, and of nut trees, the walnut and almond,
have been introduced from the south. In this region the grape is also
cultivated; its northern limit, extending from the mouth of the Loire, passes to
Paris and the Rhine near Bonn, then towards the Unstrut and Saale Rivers, and
reaches its most northerly point on the Oder below 52 deg. N. lat.; the limit of
its cultivation here turns to the south-east until it reaches the Sea of Azov.
The region of the Mediterranean, that is the Iberian Peninsula, Provence, Italy
to the foot of the Alps, and the Balkan Peninsula south of 42 deg. N. lat., has
a subtropical climate. Here flourish trees and bushes which are always green;
among those that are cultivated for their products are the citron, orange, fig,
almond, mulberry, and pomegranate trees. The fauna of Europe is in accord with
the climate and vegetation. In Northern Europe are found the polar bear, polar
fox, and reindeer; in the region of forests live the bear, wolf, and lynx, which
have, however, almost disappeared; the region of the Mediterranean contains
numerous reptiles.


POPULATION, POLITICAL DIVISIONS, AND RELIGIONS

The greater part of the population of Europe belong to the European or
Mediterranean race. The main race-groups are the Teutonic, Romanic, and
Slavonic. To the Teutonic division belong: the Germans, Dutch, Flemish, English,
and Scandinavians; it contains in all 127,800,000 souls, or 32.1 per cent of the
whole population; included in the Romanic group are: the French, Walloons,
Italians, Friulians, natives of the Rhaetian Alps, Maltese, Spaniards,
Portuguese, and Rumanians, in all 108,100,000, or 27.1 per cent; included in the
Slavonic are: the Russians, Ruthenians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Wends, Slovenes,
Croats, Serbs, Bulgarians, Letts, and Lithuanians, in all 124,600,000, or 31.3
per cent. A smaller number, about 9,500,000 souls, or 2.4 per cent is composed
of other Aryan races: Celts, Greeks, Albanians, Gypsies, Armenians, etc. There
are also about 27,900,000, or some 7 per cent, of non-Aryan races: Basques,
Magyars, Finns, the tribes of the Ural region, Turks, Kalmucks, and Jews. The
total population of Europe amounts to about 420,000,000.

The organization of the present States of Europe may be traced back to the
Middle Ages. Most of the States are limited by natural boundaries within which
each has developed its own individual character. The States vary greatly in size
and population; most of them are constitutional monarchies, the only republics
being France and Switzerland. The British Isles, united as Great Britain and
Ireland, have a total area of 121,622 sq. miles and 43,722,000 inhabitants; as a
natural consequence of the geographical position of the islands, the nation is
largely interested in colonial enterprises. The Scandinavian Peninsula is halved
by an uninhabited mountain range, thus permitting the existence of two
countries, Norway and Sweden. Norway, lying on the Atlantic, has an area of
123,938 miles and 2,300,000 inhabitants; Sweden, on the Baltic, has an area of
172,973 sq. miles and 5,261,000 inhabitants. The peninsula and islands lying
south of Norway and Sweden form the third Scandinavian state, Denmark, that
controls the entrance to the Baltic. Denmark has an area of 14,672 sq. miles and
2,450,000 inhabitants. France, the western part of the continental mass, has an
area of 206,950 sq. miles and a population of 39,060,000; it has the advantage,
excepting towards the north-east, of having for its boundaries either seas or
mountain ranges. Between Western and Central Europe lie the so-called "buffer"
States: Belgium with an area of 11,197 sq. miles and 7,075,000 inhabitants; the
Netherlands, area 12,741 sq. miles, inhabitants 5,510,000; Switzerland, area
15,830 sq. miles, inhabitants 3,425,000. The German Empire, area 208,880 sq.
miles inhabitants 60,605,000, covers the greater part of central Europe. Germany
borders upon nearly all the great powers of Europe and has, therefore, developed
a large army. The State having the least organic union geographically and
ethnographically, and consequently in constant danger of internal
disorganization, is the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Its area is 261,004 sq.
miles, population 49,092,000 souls. Russia, area 2,081,079 sq. miles,
inhabitants 119,115,000, occupies the lowland of Europe and, in its largest
extent, stretches beyond Europe into the Asiatic plain. Southern Europe embraces
numerous states with sharply defined boundaries. The Iberian Peninsula is
divided between Portugal and Spain; Portugal, a country lying on the ocean and
having a great maritime past, has an area of 43,363 sq. miles, inhabitants
5,016,000; Spain, area 191,892 sq. miles, inhabitants 18,249,000. Italy belongs
completely to the lands of the Mediterranean; its area is 110,811 sq. miles,
population 33,604,000. The physical contour of the Balkan Peninsula is so broken
up by mountain ranges that it fails to show any one organically large State. Its
divisions at the present time are: Bulgaria, 37,066 sq. miles, population
3,744,400; Montenegro, 3,475 sq. miles, population 228,000; Rumania, 50,579 sq.
miles, population 6,392,000; Servia, 18,533 sq. miles, population 2,677,000;
European Turkey, 65,251 sq. miles, population 6,130,000; Greece, 25,000 sq.
miles, population 2,440,000.

By far the greater proportion of the inhabitants of Europe belong to the
Christian Faith. One-fourth of the population are Protestants, somewhat over
one-fourth belong to the Oriental Christian Churches, nearly 45 per cent are
Catholics, 41 per cent are non-Christian. In the Romanic States 99 per cent of
the population are Catholic; in the Teutonic States 74 per cent are Protestant
and less than one per cent non-Christian. In the States of Eastern Europe,
Austria-Hungary, Russia, and the Balkan provinces, 57 percent belong to the
Oriental Churches, 9.2 per cent are non-Christian, 6 per cent are Protestant,
and 27 per cent are Catholic. The only heathen are the Kalmucks living between
the Ural and Caucasus mountains, the Finns of the Volga, and the Samoyedes.
About 8,250,000 persons or 2.1 per cent of the whole population of Europe are
Mohammedans in belief; these are limited to several tribes of the Uralo-Altaic
family in Russia, and to the former territories of the Ottoman Empire; among the
Mohammedans are a large portion of the Albanians, some of the Serbs in Bosnia
and Herzegovina, and a part of the Bulgarians. The Jews of Europe number
9,000,000 or 2.2 per cent; they are to be found chiefly in Russia, in the
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Rumania, and Turkey. (The above figures are based on
Hettner, op.cit. infra.)


CHRISTIANITY

European civilization is founded on that of the East; from Western Asia and
Egypt Europe received its food-plants, domestic animals, method of writing,
numerals, the beginnings of art and science, and the higher forms of state
organization and religion. The various States of Greece, the European neighbour
of Asia, transmitted these by trade and the foundation of colonies to the
countries lying on the shores of the eastern Mediterranean and to Southern
Italy. Rome from its central position imparted them to Western and Northern
Europe and united the civilized parts of the continent into a great empire. At
the time of its greatest extent imperial Rome included, on European soil, the
present countries of Italy, Spain, France, England, Germany west of the Rhine
and south of the Danube, the countries bordering on the Danube as far as the
Black Sea, and the whole Balkan Peninsula, besides all the islands of the
Mediterranean. Christianity, too, came from the East by way of Greece and Rome.
The connexion existing between the various Roman provinces and the wide
prevalence of the Latin and Greek tongues were most favourable to its spread.
When the structure erected by the Caesars fell to pieces, the Christian Faith
not only entered into its inheritance but also subdued all those barbarian
peoples that had up to then defied the imperial power. The Gospel was brought to
Rome by colonies of Jewish Christians who kept up close relations with
Palestine, their mother country. St. Paul brought Christianity to Greece on his
second journey (49-52 A.D.) when he founded, with the aid of Silas, Timothy, and
Luke, Christian communities in Philippi, Thessalonica, Beroea, Athens, and
Corinth. St. Paul's great letters and his journeys to Italy, perhaps also to
Spain, prepared the way for the close connexion between the Roman and Greek
Christians and strengthened them for the work of spreading the Gospel. In fact
the first persecution under Nero in 64 was not able to crush the new movement,
and the same is true of the many other later persecutions.



Towards the end of the first century, under Clement, the head of the Church at
that time, there was a close bond between Rome and Corinth. It is also to be
assumed that in the meantime all the commercial cities on the coasts of the
Mediterranean had Christians in their midst, and that before long the regions
adjoining these cities accepted the Gospel. According to tradition the Church in
Gaul was founded by Trophimus, who was sent there by St. Paul; to Crescentius, a
disciple of the Apostles, is ascribed the preaching of the Gospel in Vienne and
Mainz; and to Dionysius the Areopagite, the founding of the Church of Paris. To
Eucharius and Maternus, two disciples of St. Paul, are attributed the founding
of the Churches of Trier and Cologne. It is certain that flourishing dioceses
arose in Lyons and Vienne during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-80). At the
beginning of the third century, according to the testimony of Tertullian (Adv.
Judaeos, i), various tribes of Gaul had accepted Christianity. At about the same
date Irenaeus (Against Heresies) speaks of Churches in Germany, and the new
faith had at that time spread into all the provinces of the Spanish Peninsula.
According to the Venerable Bede (Histor. gentis Angl., I, iii), the first
missionaries came to England during the reign of Pope Eleutherius (177-90). By
the opening of the third century the British Church had spread beyond the Roman
possessions in Britain and may even have embraced Ireland. In the meantime the
barbarians living along the northern boundaries of the Roman Empire had begun
their migrations and predatory incursions. Along this border lived the tribes of
the Teutonic family, divided by the Oder into the East Germans and West Germans.
The East Germans included the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, Burgundians, Vandals,
Heruli, Rugii, and Scyrri. The West Germans were divided into the Ingvaeones or
Germans on the sea-coast, including the later Frisians and Anglo-Saxons; the
Istvaeones or the Germans of the Rhine, including the Franks between the Weser
and Rhine; the Hermiones, among whom were the later Thuringians and the upper
German tribes of the Alamanni and Bavarians (Bajuvarii). As early as the years
161-80 the Marcomanni, a West German tribe, advanced as far as Aquileia; they
were defeated, but introduced northern elements into the population. After this
failure the current of the migration divided into two streams: one to the
south-east, the migration of the East Germans; one to the south-west, the
migration of the West Germans. Of the East Germans, the Goths reached the lower
Danube and the Black Sea and divided, according to these respective positions,
into the Ostrogoths and Visigoths. In 375, on account of the pouring in of
Asiatic hordes through the gateway of the nations between the Urals and the
Caspian, the Ostrogoths came under the power of the Huns. The Visigoths, who
were also hard pressed, retreated towards Transylvania and received land
somewhat south of this from the Emperors Valens and Theodosius. When, after the
death of Theodosius, the Roman Empire was divided in 395 into the Western and
Eastern Empires, ruled respectively by his sons Honorius and Arcadius, the
Visigoths under Alaric plundered Thrace and Greece and, with the permission of
Arcadius, settled in Illyria. From here they pressed toward Italy and in 410
even entered Rome. They then turned towards South-Eastern Gaul and in 419
founded the first German kingdom on Roman soil, its capital being Toulouse; they
also conquered a large part of Spain. In 507 the Visigoths were forced to give
up their possessions in Gaul to the Franks, and in 531 the capital of the
Visigothic Kingdom was transferred to Toledo.

The recall from the Rhine of the Roman legions needed for the struggle against
Alaric left the way to the southwest open to two other East German peoples, the
Burgundians and the Vandals. The Burgundians, who had formerly lived between the
Oder and the Vistula, crossed the Rhine in 406 and founded a kingdom having its
capital at Worms; in 437 this kingdom was broken up by the Roman governor
Aëtius, but another arose in 443 around Geneva and Lyons; this, however, in 532,
was absorbed into the Kingdom of the Franks. In 406 the Vandals left their home
on the northern slope of the mountains called Riesengebirge, and in union with
the Alani and Suevi passed through Gaul into Spain; the Visigoths drove them out
of Spain into the Roman provinces in Africa, whence for a long time they
controlled the Mediterranean and in 455 ravaged Rome. In 476 Odoacer, the leader
of the mercenaries made up of Heruli, Rugii, and Scyrri, seized the government
and called himself King of Italy. At almost the same time the Ostrogoths in
Pannonia were again free, as the power of the Huns was broken in the great
battle on the Catalaunian Fields near Châlons-sur-Marne in 451. Theodoric, the
King of the Ostrogoths, conquered Odoacer in 489 and created a kingdom (493-526)
that embraced Italy, Sicily, a part of Pannonia, Rhaetia, and the Province; this
kingdom went to pieces in 553. The Ostrogoths were followed by the Lombards, a
tribe of the lower Elbe, who, passing through Pannonia, reached Italy in 568
under their King Alboin; it was not until 771 that the Lombards were brought
under subjection by the Franks. All these peoples were to disappear in order, by
their absorption into the civilization of Rome, to bring about the union of
Christianity, the state religion of Rome since the time of Constantine the
Great, with a more stable power, the united West Germans.

The West Germans, although their migrations were not very extended, had changed
their habitations as follows: in the fourth century the Alamanni advanced into
Alsace and in the fifth century took entire possession of it, spreading towards
the north as far as Coblenz. The Franks were divided into the Ripuarian and
Salian Franks; the former settled on both sides of the middle and lower Rhine,
the latter advanced from the Scheldt to the Somme. Towards the end of the third
century the Saxons advanced from the Elbe to the Rhine; in the fifth century,
with the aid of the Angles, they conquered Britain; the former inhabitants of
Britain took refuge in Wales and France and gave their name to Brittany. The
Frisians settled on the coast and islands of Schleswig-Holstein; the Thuringians
spread from the lower Elbe to the southern bank of the Main. The Bajuvarii went
farthest south. At the time of the birth of Christ they lived in modern Bohemia;
about 500 their territory extended from the Lech to the Enns and from the Danube
to the junction of the Eisack and the Adige. The region occupied by the tribes
just named enlarged the scene of European history; all that was now needed was
the political and spiritual union of these peoples to make them the leading
people of Europe. The political union was brought about by the Franks, the
spiritual union by Christianity. In the end these were combined into a form of
theocracy which, by a rapid series of victories, conquered not only Southern
Europe, but also Middle and Eastern Europe as well.

Just as the fifth century passed into the sixth (481-511) Clovis, King of the
Salian Franks, forcibly subdued the most important of the surrounding tribes; he
led them to embrace Christianity after his own conversion. Clovis first united
what was left of the Roman Empire on the Seine and Loire with his own domain and
made Paris his capital. After this he subdued the Alamanni on the Rhine, Mosel,
Lower Main, and Neckar; as the champion of the doctrines of Roman Christianity,
he conquered the King of the Arian Visigoths near Poitiers (507) and seized the
Visigothic territory between the Loire and the Garonne. By overthrowing the
petty Salian chiefs and the royal family of the Ripuarian Franks, he made
himself the ruler of all the Frankish tribes. The work was completed by his four
sons, who seized the territories of the Thuringians and Burgundians, forced the
Ostrogoths to give up Provence and Rhaetia, and obtained by treaties sovereignty
over the Bajuvarii.

Thus was laid the foundation of the Franco-Christian Empire which opened to
Christianity a new missionary field to be won over to the Faith only by properly
trained apostles. The training was given in the monastic institutions which, in
imitation of the East, had now spread over all of Western Europe. One of the
chief factors in the conversion of the heathen was the Order of St. Benedict of
Nursia, encouraged by Gregory the Great. The precursors of the Benedictines were
St. Patrick (432) and St. Columba (about 550), who converted Ireland and
Scotland, while the Anglo-Saxons received Christianity from the Benedictine
Augustine (596), who had been specially sent by Rome. At the death of St.
Patrick there were in Ireland several bishops, numerous priests and many
monasteries; his own see was Armagh. Columba founded the celebrated monastery on
the Island of Iona, between Ireland and Scotland, which was the centre of the
Scotch missions and dioceses. The Abbot Augustine and his companions erected the
metropolitan Sees of Canterbury (Durovernum), York (Eboracum), and the see of
London; in the course of the seventh century the successors of Augustine,
Mellitus and Theodore of Tarsus, completed his work.

A glorious band of self-sacrificing apostles of the Faith, from Columbanus and
Gallus to Boniface, carried Christianity from the British Isles to the
Continent. They founded their work on what scanty remains of Christianity still
existed in the former Roman provinces. In the fifth century Severinus and
Valentinus laboured in south-eastern Germany. They found the remains of nearly
obliterated sees in Lorch, Pettau, Windisch in Switzerland, Chur, Basle,
Strasburg, Avenches in Switzerland, Martigny, and Geneva, but the Teutonic
migrations and the disorders consequent on them had almost destroyed the life of
the Church. About 610 Columbanus crossed the Vosges mountains, where he had
founded the monasteries of Annegray and Luxeuil, and came to Lake Constance;
here from Bregenz as a centre he preached Christianity, while his companion St.
Gall became the founder of the celebrated monastery of St. Gall. In the early
part of the seventh century the monks Agilus and Eustasius, of the monastery of
Luxeuil, preached the Gospel in Bavaria; they were followed by Rupert of Worms
and Emmeram of Aquitaine. St. Corbinian laboured as the first Bishop of
Freising, and Kilian in Würzburg. Ecclesiastical life on the Rhine was largely
developed by Bishops Nicetius of Trier, Cunibert of Cologne, Dragobodo of
Speyer, Amandus, Lambert, and Hugo of Maastricht. The Gospel was brought to the
Frisians by Wilfrid of York and Willibrord of Northumbria; the latter erected a
see at Utrecht. Willibrord's companion, Suidbert, went into the countship of
Mark in the region of the Weser, Lippe, and Ruhr Rivers; the brothers Ewald
laboured with little success among the Saxons. An organization including all
these countries was not established until the appearance of the greatest of the
apostles of the Germans, St. Boniface. He entered on his career in the time of
the Carlovingian Mayors of the Palace, who were destined to realize the union of
Church and State in Western Europe.

Repeated divisions of the kingdom, disputes as to succession, civil wars, and
the power of the nobles almost brought the great Frankish kingdom to
dissolution. It was saved from utter ruin by Pepin of Heristal, Mayor of the
Palace (Major domus), who gradually took control of the government. In 687 Pepin
won for himself the position of Mayor of the Palace of Neustria and Burgundy, in
addition to that for Austrasia which he already held; in this way he reunited
the kingdom. He then undertook the conquest of the tribes which had broken loose
from the Frankish rule and encouraged the missions to the West Frisians. His
son, Charles Martel, who was not less active, held a position of such power that
he was able, in the great battle of Poitiers, 732, to protect Christian German
civilization against the attempt of Islam to conquer the world. Pepin the Short,
the son of Charles, brought about the union of Church and State which had so
great an influence on the history of the world. Having obtained the title of
king in 752, his first task was to defend Pope Stephen II, who had appealed to
him for aid, from the attacks of the Lombards; this was followed by the
so-called "Donation of Pepin," a grant of territory to the pope which was the
foundation of the later States of the Church. Their mutual engagements fixed not
only their own policy but also that of their successors. Like Pepin, his famous
son, Charlemagne, lent his support to the Holy See, and all his conquests were
undertaken for the good of the Church and Christianity. By successful campaigns
against Aquitaine, the Lombards, Avars, Saxons, and Danes, and by treaties with
the Slavic peoples, Charlemagne increased his domain until it extended from the
Ebro and the Apennines to the Eider River in Schleswig-Holstein, and from the
Atlantic to the Elbe and the Raab. His kingdom became a world-empire and he
himself one of the great rulers of history, worthy of reviving the Western Roman
Empire. He was crowned, Christmas Day, 800, by the pope, and the new empire
rested essentially on the basis of an alliance with the Church. Its ideal was
the Kingdom of God on earth, in which the emperor by Divine appointment is God's
viceroy in order to lead and rule all races as divided into nations, classes,
and distinctions of rank according to Divine will.

Pepin the Short had been filled with this lofty conception; consequently
extraordinary success attended the missionary labours of the Church under both
rulers. As early as 716, under the rule of Charles Martel, the Anglo-Saxon monk
Winfrid, better known as Boniface, landed on the Continent; he was to be the
reformer and organizer of German ecclesiastical life. He always laboured in
union with Rome, and was himself a missionary in Frisia with Willibrord, then,
in 722, in Hesse and Thuringia, and in 736, in Bavaria. Having been made an
archbishop and having received authority from Rome, he founded a number of
monasteries, e.g., that of Fulda, and the Bishoprics of Eichstätt, Würzburg,
Buraburg, and Erfurt. By means of synods held every five years he brought about
the closer union between the old and new dioceses, and placed the newly founded
sees in Thuringia and Hesse, as well as those of Speyer, Worms, Cologne,
Utrecht, Tongern, Augsburg, Chur, Constance, and Strasburg, under Mainz as
metropolitan see, of which he became archbishop in 746. In the reign of
Charlemagne the large territories of the Saxons and Avars were added to the
lands thus organized, and these new regions also received missionaries and
bishops. The result was the founding of the Dioceses of Bremen (787), Paderborn
(806), Werden, and Minden in the country of the Engern, Osnabrück and Münster
(785) in Westphalia, Halberstadt and Hildesheim (817) in Eastphalia; the
metropolitan of all the Saxon sees was Bremen (834). The conversion of the Avars
had been attempted by the Bavarian Duke Tassilo II; when the East Mark was
founded the Avars came under the influence of the sees and monasteries
established in this country; after their subjugation they were placed partly
under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Salzburg and partly under that of the
Patriarch of Aquileia.



From these points, Christianity, as formerly in the Roman Empire, extended
beyond the boundaries of Charlemagne's dominions, and new tribes and peoples
were evangelized, while, at the same time, Christian civilization was peacefully
established within the Frankish Empire. The monastery of Corvey on the Weser,
and the Sees of Bremen and Hamburg (831) were the mission centres for the
northern provinces. The monk Anschar of Corvey, first Archbishop of Hamburg,
laboured with great zeal as Apostolic legate in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway; his
successors were equally active as missionaries and bishops. However it was not
until the reign of Canute the Great (1014-35) that the victory of Christianity
in Denmark was assured; in 1104 Lund was made the metropolitan See of
Scandinavia; in 1163 Upsala became the metropolitan See of Sweden, and about the
middle of the twelfth century Trondhjem was made the same for Norway. Iceland
was won for Christianity about the year 1000 and was divided into the two sees
of Skalhold and Holum. The inhabitants of the Orkneys, Hebrides, Faroe, and
Shetland Islands were converted about the same time as Iceland; they were at
first placed under the metropolitan See of Hamburg- Bremen, which had been
united in 849, and later under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan See of
Norway.

During the period of the Teutonic migrations the Slavs had come into contact
with Christianity and were converted partly by Christian rulers, as in Thrace,
Macedonia, Greece and Dalmatia, partly through the influence of neighbouring
Christian countries, as in Carinthia. In 806 the Bishop of Passau undertook the
conversion of Moravia; that of Pannonia was attempted by Archbishop Adalram of
Salzburg (821-36). In both these countries a great missionary work was done by
Cyril and Methodius; the latter, Methodius, became Archbishop of Moravia and
Pannonia. The work of converting Bohemia began in the year 845; the country was
at first under the care of Ratisbon; in 973 a diocese was founded in Bohemia
itself at Prague, which was suffragan to Mainz. Poland was brought to
Christianity by its ruler Duke Mieczyslaw (963), and in 968 he erected the
Bishopric of Posen. In the year 1000 Gnesen was made a metropolitan see, its
suffragan sees were Kolberg (1065), Breslau (1000), and Cracow (1000). Finally,
in the reigns of Heinrich I and Otto I the northern Slavs, living in regions
subsequently German, namely the Wends, including those living in Pomerania, as
well as the Obotrites and Sorbs on the Oder, Vistula, and Elbe, in Lausitz, and
Saxony were forcibly Christianized. The new Sees of Havelberg, Brandenburg,
Meissen, Zeitz, Merseburg, and Oldenburg (Stargard) served as points from which
the work of conversion could be carried on; Magdeburg was the centre of the
entire Slavonic mission.

It was during this same period that the Greek Church spread through the eastern
part of Europe. In 955 the first Christian princess of Russia, Olga, was
baptized at Constantinople; during the reign of her grandson Vladimir, baptized
989, Christianity became the religion of the country. In 864 the Bulgars, at the
command of their prince Bogoris, accepted Christianity as a people, and from 870
were under the ecclesiastical control of Constantinople. A bishop sent from
Constantinople introduced Christianity among the Magyars, or Hungarians; the
work was completed by German missionaries sent in pursuance of the masterful
policy of the Saxon emperors. The first Christian ruler of Hungary was Stephen
(997-1038).

Many sacrifices, however, were still necessary in order to keep what had been
gained for Christianity and to protect these gains against the threatened
dangers of Mohammedanism and heathenism. These sacrifices were freely made by
medieval Christian Europe. Under the careful training of their appointed
guardians, the Catholic orders, the various nations and their rulers were filled
with Christian thoughts and feelings. Although the conception of their
respective positions held by the human representatives of the secular and
spiritual power inevitably led to friction, especially in the age of the
Hohenstaufen emperors, nevertheless all were conscious of their common duty to
protect faith and civilization against foes both in Europe and outside of it. A
convincing proof of this was the courageous struggle of Europe against the
attempted inroads of Islam, and especially the expeditions of conquest to the
Holy Land repeatedly undertaken by the various nations of Europe acting
together. Spain, which since 711 had been almost entirely under the control of
the Arabs, was able in 1212 to drive them as far back as Granada; in 1492
Granada also fell. From 878 Sicily had been in the hands of the Saracens, but it
was freed by the courageous Normans (1061-91). The so-called Crusades
(1061-1244) continued with interruptions for nearly two hundred years; among
those who shared in them were monks, as Peter of Amiens and St. Bernard;
bishops, as Otto of Freising; rulers of the greatest nations of Western Europe,
as the German emperors, Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II; the French kings,
St. Louis and Philip II, and the English Richard the Lion-Hearted. Orders of
knights, as the Order of St. John, were formed to take part in these
expeditions. The original aim of the Crusades, the freeing of Palestine from the
control of non-Christians, it is true, was not attained. But the power of
Mohammedanism was weakened for a long time to come; the civilization of Western
Europe, moreover, gained from the Orient the best the East had to give and thus
was greatly aided in its development.

A more lasting success, however, followed the attempts, patterned on the
Crusades, to carry on wars of conversion and conquest in those territories of
northeastern Europe peopled by tribes that had lapsed from the Faith or that
were still heathen; among such pagans were the Obotrites, Pomeranians, Wiltzi,
Sorbs, Letts, Livonians, Finns, and Prussians. The preparatory work was done in
the twelfth century by missionaries of the Premonstratensian and Cistercian
Orders. They were aided with armed forces by Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony,
Albert the Bear of Brandenburg, Boleslaw of Poland, and St. Erik IX of Sweden.
From the beginning of the thirteenth century Crusades were undertaken against
Livonia, Semgall, a division of the present Courland, and Esthonia; Teutonic
Knights conquered Prussia after a struggle that lasted more than fifty years. In
Lithuania Christianity did not win the victory until 1368. After this only the
Turks, in the south-eastern corner of the Continent, were a cause of alarm to
Christian Europe for centuries. The decline of the power of the Eastern Empire
drew the Turks over the Bosporus; in 1365 they had control of Adrianople; in the
course of the fourteenth century the Serbs, Bulgars, Macedonians, and the
inhabitants of Thessaly became their subjects. In 1453 the Turks took
Constantinople, in 1461 Trebizond, in 1480 even Otranto in Apulia; after 1547
they owned half of Hungary. It was not until the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries that their possessions were reduced to their present boundaries, thus
limiting Mohammedanism to a small part of the population of Europe.

At the beginning of modern times a great change took place in the boundaries of
the European States. The cause was that ecclesiastical movement known as the
Reformation, which placed in opposition to the unity of Catholicism in Western
Europe the numerous religious associations that together form Protestantism. The
apostasy of the various countries and cities, which began soon after Luther
first appeared, was brought about by the most varied causes, described
elsewhere, and was facilitated by the violent procedure of the petty princes who
had absolute sovereign power over their subjects. The first of the ruling
princes to make the change was Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the
Teutonic Knights (1525); he was followed by the Elector John of Saxony, Philip,
Landgrave of Hesse (1527), and at almost the same date by nearly all the German
imperial cities. The movement soon gained the northern countries, Denmark,
Sweden, Norway, and the Baltic provinces; these all gave their adherence (1530)
to the so-called Augsburg Confession, while the upper German imperial cities,
Strasburg, Constance, Lindau, Memmingen, held to the Tetrapolitan Confession of
the so-called Reformed Church founded by Zwingli and especially strong in
Switzerland. The Reformed Church also found adherents in the Palatinate, and at
the beginning of the seventeenth century in Hesse-Cassel and Brandenburg. The
Anglican Church was established in 1549 in Great Britain; in 1559 the French
Reformed Church adopted the "Confessio Gallicana"; in 1560 the Scotch Reformed
the "Confessio Scottica"; from 1592 the Reformation in Scotland adopted a
Presbyterian form of government. Since 1562 the Reformation in the Netherlands
has held to the "Confessio Belgica," and the Reformed Church in Hungary since
1567, to the "Confessio Hungarica." Soon the Counter-Reformation, called into
life by the Council of Trent (1545-63) to prevent the loss of the whole of
middle Europe, appeared; its success was assured by the aid of the Society of
Jesus. In this way various princes and bishops who were desirous of doing their
duty were enabled to hold their countries to the Catholic Church, as the Duke of
Cleves, the Electors of Mainz and Trier, the Bishops of Augsburg, Würzburg,
Bamberg, Münster, Constance, Basle, the Abbey of Fulda, but especially the Dukes
of Bavaria and the Hapsburg dynasty within their Austrian provinces. Soon the
hostility between the two ecclesiastical parties grew so bitter that a trifling
incident sufficed to bring on a terrible religious conflict, the Thirty Years
War (1616-48). Two religious confessional leagues confronted each other in
Germany: the Catholic League, which was formed in 1609 among the Catholic States
of the German Empire and had for its leader the vigorous Duke Maximilian of
Bavaria, and the Union in which, from 1609, most of the Protestant and cities
combined under the leadership of Frederick IV of the Palatinate. Foreign powers
— Denmark, Sweden, and France — also took part in the war. The result of the
Thirty Years' War, confirmed in the Peace of Westphalia, laid the foundation of
confessional relations as they now exist. Neither internal commotions nor
seemingly mighty political revolutions, such as the illuminism of the French
Encyclopedists and the German neo-classicists, the temporary supremacy of
rationalism, and the French Revolution, with its consequent wars, greatly
changed these relations. The present condition as developed during the course of
the nineteenth century and up to the present time is as follows.


PRESENT CONDITION OF RELIGION IN EUROPE


RELATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT STATES TO THE RELIGIOUS COMMUNIONS

In the German Empire the formation of religious denominations and their
religious worship are subject to the legislation of the several States. Some
States allow complete freedom, as Prussia, Würtemberg, Hesse, and
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; others supervise religious worship, as Baden, Waldeck, and
Mecklenburg; others again make the establishment of religious denominations
depend on the Government, as in Bavaria, Saxony, Brunswick, Saxe-Meiningen, and
Alsace-Lorraine. The Catholic and the Evangelical Churches are regarded as
privileged and public corporations. In England and Wales the Anglican is the
State Church, its head being the king; the fundamental principles are defined by
Parliament. There is a similar arrangement for the Presbyterian State Church in
Scotland where, however, the organization is somewhat freer. On the other hand
the Anglican Church of Ireland is, since 1869, no longer a State Church. The
Dissenters, who in 1689 were only conditionally tolerated, have now equal
rights. In France the Separation Law of 9 December, 1905, brought about the
separation of Church and State and provided for the formation of Associations
cultuelles for the exercise of religion. In Italy the Constitution originally
declared the Roman Catholic religion the religion of the State, but gradually
all privileges have been withdrawn from it; besides the Roman Catholic Church,
the Evangelical Waldensian Church, the National Greek Church and the Jewish
communities are organized as Churches with separate constitutions. In Spain and
Portugal the State religion is the Roman Catholic. In Belgium the Catholic,
Protestant, Jewish, and Anglican forms of worship are recognized by the granting
of salaries from the State to those having ecclesiastical charges. Outside of
these any religious community is a private association. The Netherlands grants
equal protection to all confessions. So does Switzerland, excepting that in this
country a more exacting control is exercised over the Roman Catholic Church. In
Denmark the Evangelical Lutheran Church is the State Church, at least inasmuch
as its ministers are paid by the State and subject to removal by the State;
other religious communities have no claim to state support. The case is the same
in Sweden, where, in addition, the condition is laid down that the king, the
members of the Council of State, and foreigners who are appointed teachers at
the university, all subscribe to some evangelical confession. ln Norway this
ordinance is enforced for the head of the State. In Austria the Churches and
religious associations recognized by law are as follows: the Roman Catholic, the
Uniat Greek, and Uniat Armenian Churches, the Evangelical Churches of the
Augsburg and Helvetic Confessions, the Orthodox Greek Church, the Jewish
religious community, the religious association of the Russian sect of the
Lipovani and the Oriental Armenian in Bukowina, the Old Catholic religious
community, and the Moravian Brethren (Herrnhuter). The expenses of the Roman
Catholic and Orthodox Greek Churches are met from a fund controlled by the State
and obtained from the secularization of Church property in the reign of Joseph
II. In Hungary the Roman Catholic Church was originally the state religion; the
State grants in addition free exercise to other Christian confessions and to the
Jewish faith. Croatia-Slavonia recognizes only the Roman Catholic and Uniat
Greek Churches, the Orthodox Greek and Protestant Churches, and the Jewish
belief. In Bosnia and Herzegovina the ruling confessions are the Orthodox Greek
and Roman Catholic Churches, and Mohammedanism. The State Church of the Balkan
provinces is the Orthodox Greek. The State Church of Russia is the Orthodox
Greek Russian Church; the other Christian and non-Christian confessions are
tolerated, the Jews have only limited rights.


ORGANIZATION OF THE RELIGIOUS COMMUNIONS

The Evangelical Church distinguishes three forms of organization: (a) The
episcopal, in which the ruler of the country with the aid of a subordinate
hierarchy exercises ecclesiastical authority. This is the form in force in
Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland. (b) The consistorial organization, in
which the ruler is aided by a consistory made up of ecclesiastical and secular
members. This form is found in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxony-Altenburg, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,
Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, the two principalities of Reuss, Schaumburg-Lippe,
Lübeck, Bremen, Alsace-Lorraine, and Russia. (c) The synodal form of
organization and similar Presbyterian associations which are based on assemblies
of elected representatives and the ordinances passed by these. This form of
organization is in existence in Austria-Hungary, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony,
Würtemberg, Baden, Hesse, and other German States, where the consistorial system
is not in force. The synodal organization also exists among the non-Anglican
Churches in Great Britain, in France, among the Italian Waldenses, in the
Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, and Spain; also in connexion with the
episcopal form of church government in Sweden and Finland. The Anglican Church,
called in England and Wales the Established Church of England, and in Ireland
the Church of Ireland, is episcopal in government; in Ireland the episcopal and
synodal systems are united. The head of the Church is the king. England and
Wales are divided into the two church provinces of Canterbury and York. The
Archbishop of Canterbury is the Primate of All England; under Canterbury are 28
suffragan dioceses; York consists of an archdiocese and 9 suffragan bishoprics.
Ireland has 2 archdioceses: Armagh, which has the primacy of all Ireland, and
Dublin with 10 suffragans; Scotland has 7 dioceses. The organization of the
Oriental Greek Church varies in different countries. In Russia the head of the
Church is the Tsar, who appoints the members of the Holy Synod, the highest
ecclesiastical body. In Turkey the Oecumenical Patriarch is the head; under him
are 10 or 12 metropolitans. In Rumania a national synod is the highest
ecclesiastical authority; in Servia a metropolitan with the bishops; in Bulgaria
the church government is vested in an exarch, aided by archbishops, bishops, and
archpriests. The Holy Synod of Greece consists of five prelates or bishops named
by the king. In the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy there are 3 provinces of the
Oriental Greek Church: the Austrian, or Province of Czernowitz, with the
suffragan Dioceses of Zara and Cattaro, the Archdiocese of Karlowitz
(Patriarch-Archbishop), with 6 suffragans, and the Archdiocese of Herrmannstadt,
with 2 suffragans. Bosnia and Herzegovina have each a metropolitan.

For the ecclesiastical organization of European countries, see the respective
articles on the various political divisions, also EASTERN CHURCHES. The
religious statistics for the countries of Europe found in the adjoining table
are based on Brachelli and von Juraschek, "Die Staaten Europas" (3th ed.,
Leipzig, Brünn, and Vienna, 1907).


RELIGIOUS STATISTICS FOR THE COUNTRIES OF EUROPE

The figures below are based on census reports, dates of which are given in
parentheses.

 * Russia, Finland, and Poland (1897):-- 11,326,794 Catholics (including Uniat
   Eastern Churches) — 6,283,679 Evangelicals (including Anglicans, Methodists,
   Unitarians, etc.) — 78,713,017 Oriental Christians (Orthodox Greek, Gregorian
   Armenian, etc.) — 5,082,342 Jews — 3,560,361 Mohammedans — 320,292 Others
   (Rationalist, Non-Christian, etc.)
 * Austria-Hungary, with Bosnia and Herzegovina (1900):-- 35,804,263 — 4,227,691
   — 4,095,723 — 2,158,380 — 548,632 — 0
 * Germany (1900):-- 20,327,913 — 35,231,104 — 0 — 586,833 — 0 — 17,535
 * France (1900):-- 38,100,000 — 662,000 — 0 — 100,000 — 0 — 100,000
 * Spain (1900):-- about 18,500,000 — 6,654 (1887) — 0 — 402 (1887) — 0 — 23,330
   (1887)
 * Sweden (1890):-- 1,436 — 4,779,867 — 0 — 3,402 — 0 — 276
 * Norway (1900):-- 2,065 — 2,204,989 — 0 — 642 — 0 — 13,770
 * Great Britain and Ireland (1901):-- 5,310,000 — 35,925,000 — 0 — 210,000 — 0
   — 0
 * Italy (1901):-- about 30,500,000 — 62,000 (1880) — 0 — 38,000 (1880) — 0 — 0
 * Turkish Empire (1900):-- 480,000 — 20,000 — 2,480,000 — 90,000 — 3,060,000 —
   0
 * Denmark (1900):-- 5,479 — 2,436,012 — 0 — 3,476 — 0 — 4,573
 * Rumania (1899):-- 149,667 — 22,749 — 5,408,743 — 269,015 — 43,740 — 16,148
 * Bulgaria (1900):-- 40,790 — 4,524 — 3,020,840 — 33,717 — 643,253 — 1,149
 * Portugal (1900):-- 5,425,500 — 500 — 0 — 2,000 — 0 — 0
 * Greece and Crete (1900):-- 34,710 — 0 — 2,172,048 — 6,518 — 57,446 — 740
 * Servia (1895):-- 10,948 — 1,002 — 2,281,018 — 5,102 — 14,414 — 0
 * Switzerland (1900):-- 1,283,135 — 1,918,197 — 0 — 12,551 — 0 — 0
 * The Netherlands (1899):-- 1,790,161 — 3,085,899 — 45 — 103,988 — 0 — 115,179
 * Belgium (1900):-- 6,669,000 — 20,000 — 0 — 4,000 — 0 — 0
 * Montenegro (1897):-- 12,934 — 0 — 201,067 — 0 — 13,840 — 0
 * The 280,000 inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Republic of
   Andorra, the Principality of Lichtenstein, the Republic of San Marino, and
   the Principalityof Monaco are almost entirely Catholics
 * Total:-- 176,054,795 — 96,891,867 — 98,372,501 — 8,710,368 — 7,941,686 —
   612,992




SOURCES

THATCHER AND SCHWILL, A General History of Europe, 350-1900 (London, 1902);
HASSAL, A Handbook of European History, 476-1871 (London, 1902); KIRSCH AND VON
LUKSCH, Illustrierte Geschichte der katholischen Kirche (Munich, 1905);
PHILIPPSON, Europa (2nd ed., Leipzig and Vienna, 1906); HETTNER, Grundzüge der
Laenderkunde, I, Europa (Leipzig, 1907). See also the bibliography under the
names of the respective countries.


ABOUT THIS PAGE

APA citation. Hartig, O. (1909). Europe. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York:
Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05607b.htm

MLA citation. Hartig, Otto. "Europe." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New
York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909.
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05607b.htm>.

Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by John Fobian. In
memory of Donald R. Thomas.

Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. May 1, 1909. Remy Lafort, Censor.
Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York.

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