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Abdül Hamid II

The repressive policies of Abdül Hamid II fostered disaffection, especially
among those educated in Europe or in Westernized schools. Young officers and
students who conspired against the sultan's regime coalesced into small groups,
largely outside Istanbul. One young officer, Mustafa Kemal (later known as
Atatürk), organized a secret society among fellow officers in Damascus and,
later, in Thessaloniki (Salonika) in present-day Greece. Atatürk's group merged
with other nationalist reform organizations in 1907 to form the Committee of
Union and Progress (CUP). Also known as the Young Turks, this group sought to
restore the 1876 constitution and unify the diverse elements of the empire into
a homogeneous nation through greater government centralization under a
parliamentary regime.

In July 1908, army units in Macedonia revolted and demanded a return to
constitutional government. Appearing to yield, Abdül Hamid II approved
parliamentary elections in November in which the CUP won all but one of the
Turkish seats under a system that allowed proportional representation of all
millets . The Young Turk government was weakened by splits between nationalist
and liberal reformers, however, and was threatened by traditionalist Muslims and
by demands from non-Turkish communities for greater autonomy. Abdül Hamid II was
forced to abdicate and was succeeded by his brother, Mehmet V, in 1909. Foreign
powers took advantage of the political instability in Istanbul to seize portions
of the empire. Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina immediately after the 1908
revolution, and Bulgaria proclaimed its complete independence. Italy declared
war in 1911 and seized Libya. Having earlier formed a secret alliance, Greece,
Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria invaded Ottoman-held Macedonia and Thrace in
October 1912. Ottoman forces were defeated, and the empire lost all of its
European holdings except part of eastern Thrace.

The disasters befalling the empire led to internal political change. The liberal
government in power since July 1912 was overthrown in January 1913 in a coup
engineered by Enver Pasha, and the most authoritarian elements of the Young Turk
movement gained full control. A second Balkan war broke out in June 1913, when
the Balkan allies began fighting among themselves over the division of the
spoils from the first war. Taking advantage of the situation, Ottoman forces
turned on Bulgaria, regaining Edirne and establishing the western boundary of
the empire at the Maritsa River.

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