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 * What is
   * Introduction to nuclear energy
   * What is a nuclear reactor?
   * What is nuclear waste?
   * What is radioactivity?
   * What is nuclear recycling?
   * What is a fast reactor?
   * What is thorium?
   * What is an isotope?
   * What is nuclear propulsion?
   * What is nuclear space technology?
   * What is nuclear fusion?
   * What is nuclear engineering?
   * What is afterglow/decay heat?
   * What is nuclear non-proliferation?
   * What is a nuclear moderator?
   * What is radioactive dose?
 * History
   * Nuclear Reactor Development History
   * Offshore nuclear power plants
   * Admiral Rickover's 'Paper Reactor' memo
   * How to Kill Nuclear Power With Good Intentions — A Primer
   * How did all that energy get in the nucleus?
   * Digital Nuclear Reactor History Museum
   * General History of Nuclear Energy
   * Historical Nuclear Energy Films
   * Notes on Alvin Weinberg's autobiography
   * Notes on Atoms for Peace and War
 * Reactors
   * CANDU reactors
   * Molten salt reactors
   * Traveling wave reactors
   * Sodium Graphite Reactors
   * What is an Advanced Reactor?
 * Problems
   * Economics of nuclear power
   * The Chernobyl Disaster
   * Parents' memories of the Chernobyl disaster
   * The Fukushima Accident
   * What about Hanford?
 * Reference
   * Nuclear Power Reading List
   * Computing the energy density of nuclear fuel
   * Measuring the Age of the Earth
   * Interactive Half-Life Calculator
   * The math behind radioactive decay
   * Low-dose Radiation Effect Estimator
   * A primer on energy, greenhouse gas, intermittency, and nuclear
   * Enrichment SWU calculator
   * Nuclear energy slide deck for schools, etc.
   * Energy flow diagram
   * Nuclear Reactor Risk Assessment
   * Interesting nuclear links
   * Nuclear energy factlets and calculations
 * Clarifications
   * Nuclear fuel will last us for 4 billion years
   * Nuclear energy is low-carbon energy
   * Radiation detectors are amazingly sensitive
   * Thorium myths
   * Sodium and Salt are different in nuclear
   * Greenpeace, CNN, The Hill miss context on radiocarbon release
   * Tuna are safe to eat after Fukushima
   * 100% renewables can be inadvertently anti-nuclear
   * Pandora's Revenge: Defending Pandora's Promise
 * Fun
   * Radiation on Flights
   * Nuclear-friendly statements of famous people
   * Nuclear Energy Songs
   * The Whatisnuclear Store
   * Your random reactor is
   * Bingo Card Generator
   * Safety Minutes
   * Barn Jams!
   * We should rename nuclear energy
   * Energy Density Comparison with Nuclear
 * More!
   * Real Life Nuclear Engineers
   * What is a nuclear fuel cycle?
   * Power and Energy
   * Fun Nuclear Factlets
   * Plug-in hybrid electric cars
   * Solar power
   * Scale of Energy Usage
   * How many batteries do you need to store electricity for a night?
   * Nuclear Sermon
   * Letter to President-Elect Obama
 * About
   * About Whatisnuclear.com
   * Contact us
   * Privacy Policy
   * Terms and Conditions
 * News
   * News and posts
 * 


INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR ENERGY



In the late 1930s, we discovered that some particularly large atoms found in
nature can be split into two, releasing a shocking amount of energy as heat.
Because the energy emerges from the atomic nucleus, we call it nuclear energy.

When these atoms are arranged properly in a machine called a nuclear reactor,
each splitting nucleus can induce its neighbors to split in turn, creating a
controlled chain reaction. Reactors can convert the released nuclear heat into
electricity, shaft horsepower (to power ships), building heating, desalinated
water, hydrogen, and many other things useful to human civilization.

Today, about 430 commercial nuclear power plants worldwide produce around 400 GW
of electricity, enough to power 400 million average households. About one-fifth
of the USA’s electricity comes from nuclear power, which represents about half
of the country’s zero-carbon electricity.

Nuclear energy is controversial due to concerns about radiation. Public support
varies geographically and over time, but as of 2023, polls show that a majority
of people support expanding nuclear power.


WHAT ARE THE KEY CAPABILITIES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY?

(Click on each of the headings for more details.)


EXTREME ENERGY DENSITY LEADS TO MINISCULE POLLUTION AND MINERAL NEEDS

Because nuclear fuel contains millions of times more energy per mass than
anything else, it is possible to keep all the byproducts accounted for and out
of the biosphere, in strong contrast to fossil and biofuels which release much
of their combustion wastes into the air, causing severe health and environmental
problems. The following table shows how long a 100 Watt light bulb could run
from using 1 kg of various fuels. The natural uranium undergoes nuclear fission
and thus attains extremely high energy density (energy stored in a unit of
mass).

MaterialEnergy Density (MJ/kg)100W light bulb time (1kg) Wood101.2 days
Ethanol26.83.1 days Coal32.53.8 days Crude oil41.94.8 days Diesel45.85.3 days
Natural Uranium (LWR)5.7x105182 years Reactor Grade Uranium (LWR)3.7x1061,171
years Natural Uranium (breeder)8.1x10725,700 years Thorium
(breeder)7.9x10725,300 years

Energy densities of various energy sources in MJ/kg and in length of time that 1
kg of each material could run a 100W load. Natural uranium has undergone no
enrichment (0.7% U-235), reactor-grade uranium has 5% U-235. By the way, 1 kg of
weapons grade uranium (95% U-235) could power the entire USA for 177 seconds.
All numbers assume 100% thermal-to-electrical conversion. See our energy density
of nuclear fuel page for details.


NUCLEAR ENERGY IS CARBON-FREE

Splitting atoms is a carbon-free process, so nuclear power is a global solution
to climate change. While some processes in the overall lifecycle are currently
carbon-emitting, the net result is that nuclear is nearly as low-carbon as you
can get. Once we electrify construction and mining equipment and power it all
with nuclear and other zero-carbon processes, the overall carbon will trend to
zero.

Source: Schlomer S., et.al., 2014: Annex III: Technology-specific cost and
performance parameters. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change.
Contribution of Working Group III to the 5th Assessment Report of the IPCC.
(Unlabeled version here)


NUCLEAR REACTORS CAN MAKE ENERGY ON DEMAND AS NEEDED

One loading of fuel lasts 18+ months in a reactor, and they generally operate
for that long non-stop. No cloudy days or calm nights will prevent nuclear
energy from being delivered to those who depend on it. While uncommonly done due
to current market structures, today's nuclear reactors are perfectly capable of
ramping their power up and down daily, to the tune of 2-5% full power per
minute! Nuclear plants can load follow, and will if we set up markets to
encourage it. (OECD-NEA) This can be an important complement to low-carbon but
uncontrollably-intermittent power sources like wind and solar.


NUCLEAR ENERGY IS SUSTAINABLE

We have enough nuclear fuel resources to power the world for literally billions
of years with advanced reactors. Even with conventional reactors, peak uranium
is far off.



Humans use a lot of energy, and we’re using more every day. Between 2000 and
2010, the world total energy consumption rose by an astounding 29% [1]. Choices
about our consumption of energy are fundamental to the primary geopolitical and
environmental struggles of our day. Nuclear energy is a strong candidate for
supplying our energy while alleviating these struggles.


WHAT ARE THE DOWNSIDES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY?

Of course nothing’s perfect. Long-standing questions and concerns abound
regarding nuclear energy. Click for details.


WHAT ABOUT THE WASTE?

When heavy atoms split and release energy, the two smaller atoms remaining
(called fission products) are often left with some extra energy to give off.
This energy is released over a period of time (the longest-lived waste lasting
100,000+ years) in the form of energetic particles called radiation. The high
radiation is hazardous and must be kept isolated from the biosphere. We have not
yet agreed on what should be done with this high-level nuclear waste.

WASTE SOLUTIONS

We know how to deal with nuclear waste safely. The Finns simply chose to go
ahead and solve their nuclear waste issue and built the repository at Onkalo. We
have good experience with deep geologic disposal in salt deposits that have been
stable for 250 million years. Research in deep borehole technology is also
looking promising. Finally, if we close the fuel cycle and recycle spent fuel,
then it decays to safe levels in several hundred years rather than hundreds of
thousands. Furthermore, despite the fear, few people, if any, have ever been
injured by stored commercial nuclear waste.

We have a detailed page dedicated to nuclear waste here.


WHAT ABOUT MELTDOWNS?

The radioactive fission products are hottest when a reactor first shuts down. In
effect, you can’t shut a reactor completely off. This decay heat must be cooled
or else the containment structures that hold the fuel and waste can breach,
releasing radiation into the biosphere. Accidents at Fukushima and Three Mile
Island were caused by this effect. Unstable reactor design and operation at
Chernobyl led to a power excursion and widespread dispersal of radioactive
material. So, people worry about reactor safety.

SAFETY SOLUTIONS

Nuclear energy has actually saved over 1.8 million lives by displacing
air-pollution related deaths that would have occurred had fossil or biofuel
plants been built instead of the clean-air nuclear ones [2]. This includes the
health effects of the nuclear accidents. So they’re like airplanes; when one
goes down, it is a major disaster and huge story, but when you look at the data,
it is clear that nuclear reactors are one of the safest ways known to produce
energy. And advanced designs can make them even safer.

Nuclear safety and risk details


WHAT ABOUT NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION?

The first application of fission was as an atomic bomb. While nuclear reactors
and atomic bombs are significantly different machines, there is some technology
overlap, especially in fuel cycle facilities like enrichment and reprocessing
plants. So, some people argue that having reactors around might make it easier
to spread nuclear weapons.

PROLIFERATION SOLUTIONS

It is important for nuclear facilities to monitor nuclear material. That said,
advanced designs are being developed that reduce reliance on enrichment.
Actually, nuclear reactors are useful for peacefully destroying nuclear weapons,
and between the late 1990s and 2013, fully 10% of the US electricity was
generated in nuclear reactors using dismantled ex-Soviet nuclear warheads in the
Megatons-to-Megawatts program.

Read more about proliferation »


WHAT ABOUT THE ECONOMICS?

Nuclear reactors are generally large and complex, with lots of reinforced
concrete and nuclear-grade quality assurance programs. As a result, they tend to
be expensive to build. Once they’re built, the fuel and operating costs are
relatively cheap, but the capital cost is a major hurdle.

COST SOLUTIONS

If carbon dioxide is ever treated as a pollutant, then nuclear reactors will
become much more competitive. But there is definitely room to improve! Research
is ongoing in many venues to reduce the cost of nuclear reactors. Countries that
chose a standard design and built many of the same have succeeded in bringing
costs down.

Read more about economics


A NUANCED REALITY

Nuclear fission’s ability to responsibly produce global-scale, 24/7, (nearly)
carbon-free energy is unmatched among known technologies.

Next-generation reactor designs exist that can further reduce waste, improve
safety, increase proliferation resistance, and reduce costs. Even if someone
doesn’t support current nuclear, it is difficult for them to disregard all
possible improvements. We humans have made impressive accomplishments before.

Of all the known energy resources, nuclear is perhaps the most passionately
debated and least understood. Our goal is to explain what makes some people so
excited and supportive, and what makes others so passionately opposed. There are
many sides to each story. Let’s explore them deeper.

More intro: A primer on energy, greenhouse
gas, intermittency, and nuclear


FISSION AND FUSION

There are two fundamental nuclear processes considered for energy production:
fission and fusion.

 * Fission is the energetic splitting of large atoms such as Uranium or
   Plutonium into two smaller atoms, called fission products. To split an atom,
   you have to hit it with a neutron. Several neutrons are also released which
   can go on to split other nearby atoms, producing a nuclear chain reaction of
   sustained energy release. This nuclear reaction was the first of the two to
   be discovered. All commercial nuclear power plants in operation use this
   reaction to generate heat which they turn into electricity.
 * Fusion is the combining of two small atoms such as Hydrogen or Helium to
   produce heavier atoms and energy. These reactions can release more energy
   than fission without producing as many radioactive byproducts. Fusion
   reactions occur in the sun, generally using Hydrogen as fuel and producing
   Helium as waste (fun fact: Helium was discovered in the sun and named after
   the Greek Sun God, Helios). This reaction has not been commercially developed
   yet and is a serious research interest worldwide, due to its promise of
   nearly limitless, low-pollution, and non-proliferative energy. Read more at
   our fusion page.


WHERE TO GO FROM HERE

Take a look at the navigation bar on the top of the page (or click the line-icon
if you’re on a small screen). You’ll find information on all sorts of relevant
topics. To get started, check out the what is a nuclear reactor? page.

Other highlights include:

 * Nuclear reactor development history
 * Age of the Earth
 * Radiation on flights

One of our more unique features is a personal account of the Chernobyl accident
by a mother and father of one of our contributors, who lived nearby.

FEATURED PAGES

Nuclear Overview Nuclear Reactors Nuclear Waste Reactor Development History Fast
Reactors Molten Salt Reactors Thorium Nuclear Fuel Radiation on Airplanes
First-hand Chernobyl Memories Fukushima Fish The Age of Earth

OUR GOAL

To answer this common sentiment:

> "Honestly, my gut feeling is that I’m not in favor of it, but I don't know
> hardly anything about it."

Girl in Ann Arbor, MI

> "I second that."

Guy standing there

> "Energy is part of a historic process, a substitute for the labor of human
> beings. As human aspirations develop, so does the demand for and use of energy
> grow and develop."

David Lilienthal, Atomic Energy: A New Start


REFERENCES

 * International climate objectives will not be met if nuclear power is
   excluded, according to UNECE report (2021)
 * Nuclear Energy Makes History as Final COP28 Agreement Calls for Faster
   Deployment (2023)
 * Kharecha and Hansen, "Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from
   Historical and Projected Nuclear Power," Environ. Sci. Technol., 2013, 47
   (9), pp 4889–4895
 * Schlomer S., et.al., 2014: Annex III: Technology-specific cost and
   performance parameters. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate
   Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the 5th Assessment Report of the
   IPCC
 * Technical and Economic Aspects of Load Following with Nuclear Power Plants
   (OECD-NEA 2011)

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