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VINCE BEISER


THE WORLD IN A GRAIN


THE STORY OF SAND AND HOW IT TRANSFORMED CIVILIZATION

Riverhead, 2018

15 Minuten Lesezeit
9 Take-aways
Audio & Text


WAS IST DRIN?

The sand that slips so easily through your fingers is the substrate of just
about everything in modern life.


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RECOMMENDATION

Sand is the groundwork for virtually everything in modern life. The buildings
you live and work in and the roads you drive on are made of sand. Sand enables
modern life, but it’s starting to run out, and its mining and use destroy the
environment. Award-winning journalist Vince Beiser illuminates what sand makes
possible, why sand grips the human imagination, and offers insights into the
political and environmental issues surrounding sand.


TAKE-AWAYS

 * Sand is the most significant material in the world.
 * The invention of concrete – which sand and gravel comprise – transformed the
   way people live.
 * Asphalt and concrete changed the way Americans move from place to place.
 * Sand’s use in making glass shaped modern life.
 * Sand is crucial for making computer chips, and thus makes 21st-century life
   possible.
 * Fracking requires sand, and has made America a top oil and gas producer.
 * Beaches around the world are disappearing, and sand mining is a cause.
 * Sand islands in the sea are obliterating ecosystems.
 * Concrete is taking over the world.


SUMMARY


SAND IS THE MOST SIGNIFICANT MATERIAL IN THE WORLD.

You may think sand is the most ordinary substance, useful for recreational spots
like beaches, but in fact it’s necessary for the greater part of the world most
people live in today. If you consider how you live and work on an average day,
much of what you do relies on sand. The buildings you live and work in, for
example, contain vast amounts of concrete, of which sand is a foundational
material. Sand is a crucial material in the windows you gaze out of in your
office or living room. They are glass, which is made of sand, as are the roads
and sidewalks you drive and walk on, and the shopping malls you visit. The chips
that make your smartphone, iPad and laptop intelligent and useful require sand.

> “You may not realize it, but sand is there, making the way you live possible,
> in almost every minute of your day.”

Sand makes 21st-century life possible. But sand has become scarce, and people
pursue it fiercely. Earth’s population keeps growing, and people need more and
more sand to live and work, especially in today’s digital, globalized economy.


THE INVENTION OF CONCRETE – WHICH SAND AND GRAVEL COMPRISE – TRANSFORMED THE WAY
PEOPLE LIVE.

The invention of concrete fundamentally changed human life as much as fire and
electricity did. Necessary for the construction of massive buildings and the
roads people travel on around the world, concrete manufacture relies on
relatively straightforward materials. People make concrete by combining sand,
gravel, cement and water, with sand and gravel as the dominant ingredients. The
result dries into a hard, stone-like substance.

> “Concrete is the skeleton of the modern world, the scaffold on which so much
> else is built.”

Concrete has all the weaknesses and limitations of stone, but when iron and
steel reinforce it, it offers a variety of uses. Reinforced concrete helped the
people of the 20th century realize their ambitions. Reinforced concrete made the
construction of the Panama Canal feasible, changing shipping routes for the
entire world. The Hoover Dam across the Colorado River was once the world’s
biggest, and demanded vast quantities of sand and gravel, much of it mined a few
miles from the dam. Reinforced concrete gave rise to a new architectural
aesthetic, like the corkscrew shapes of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Solomon R.
Guggenheim Museum, for example.


ASPHALT AND CONCRETE CHANGED THE WAY AMERICANS MOVE FROM PLACE TO PLACE.

The United States today organizes around a vast network of interconnected paved
highways and roads. In the early 20th century, few roads connected cities, and
those that did were mostly unpaved. Following World War I, the US military
believed America’s roads needed dramatic improvement. That was exactly what
President Dwight D. Eisenhower did when he initiated construction of the
interstate highway system, which eventually consumed thousands of tons of
concrete and more than a billion tons of sand and gravel. In an era in which
everyone wanted a car, good, paved roads proved crucial. By the middle of the
1950s, more than 50% of American families owned cars. Congress approved funds
for this vast highway project, which would create some 41,000 miles of road, in
1956. It didn’t reach completion until 1991, at a price of close to $130
billion.


SAND’S USE IN MAKING GLASS SHAPED MODERN LIFE.

Glass is ubiquitous in modern life. People look out into their streets or their
yards through glass. People drink from glass cups in rooms lit by glass bulbs.
Glass makes it possible to see things it would otherwise be impossible to see.
Glasses, cameras, microscopes and telescopes and everything they bring with them
all depend on glass lenses. The sand that manufacturers melt down to make glass
requires more specialized grains that are “95 percent pure silicon dioxide.”

> “The booming cities don’t need sand only for concrete; they need if for glass.
> All those new buildings need windows. The new cars on the new highways need
> windshields.”

When former coal-mine child laborer Mike Owens invented a glass-bottle-making
machine in 1903, he created something that the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers called the “most significant advance in glass production in over 2,000
years.” Owens’s machine helped make glass bottles an everyday item worldwide. In
1952, a British engineer invented a process for making sheet glass that builders
could use as windows in large buildings. Today, rapidly expanding cities all
over the world need sand for concrete and for glass. The demand for glass, and
the kinds of sand that glass can be made from, is only increasing.


SAND IS CRUCIAL FOR MAKING COMPUTER CHIPS, AND THUS MAKES 21ST-CENTURY LIFE
POSSIBLE.

Sand in the form of “high-purity silicon dioxide particles” is crucial for
manufacturing the hardware for digital technologies, including computer chips
and fiber-optic cables.

> “Most of us never think about how our high-tech industries depend on sand.” ”

Early on, engineers regarded silicon, which is a “semiconductor,” as a worthy
material for creating the transistors that would drive and streamline computers.
When Intel offered the first commercially available computer chip in 1971, it
contained 2,250 transistors. A contemporary computer chip houses billions of
transistors. Computer chips drive the internet and everything on it. Computer
chips are one of the most intricate objects human beings manufacture, and sand
is their basic element.


FRACKING REQUIRES SAND, AND HAS MADE AMERICA A TOP OIL AND GAS PRODUCER.

Fracking makes it possible to extract vast amounts of oil and gas from areas of
North Dakota, Texas, Ohio and Pennsylvania. Fracking helps the United States
lead the world in the extraction of oil and gas. Fracking requires sand.
Specialists have long understood that shale rock contains significant quantities
of hydrocarbons, but the density of shale makes it difficult for hydrocarbons to
move out of it and form reserves. This can be sidestepped by fracturing, or
fracking, the rock and injecting a “highly pressurized mix of water, chemicals
and sand.” The hydrocarbons move through the cracks in the shale. The sand keeps
the cracks open.

> “America’s fracking fields are the latest front to which we have deployed
> armies of sand to maintain our lifestyle.”

The development of “horizontal drilling,” which enables reaching even more oil
and gas resources, drove a dramatic expansion of fracking. Since 2003, the
amount of sand used for fracking has increased exponentially. Fracking uses more
sand than concrete, glass and silicon chips do. Fracking brings a variety of
negative environmental effects – water resource pollution, earthquakes, and an
increased risk of cancer and silicosis.


BEACHES AROUND THE WORLD ARE DISAPPEARING, AND SAND MINING IS A CAUSE.

Everyone loves a beach with beautiful white sand. And beaches around the world
are worth billions of dollars. In many places, like Fort Lauderdale, Florida,
beaches are tourist attractions that employ a lot of people. Fort Lauderdale’s
most vexing trouble is that its beautiful beaches are gradually vanishing.
Traditionally, the sand on Fort Lauderdale’s beaches would go through a natural
process of erosion and restoration. In the last century, the marinas and jetties
that people have built along the Atlantic coast obstructed this natural process.
Beaches around the world, from Southern California to Europe and Asia, are also
vanishing.

> “On shorelines around the world, in countries rich and poor, supine armies of
> sand offer themselves up as tourist attractions.”

Coastal development and river dams drive the destruction of beaches. River dams
obstruct the movement of water and sand that restores beaches. Sand mining in
rivers makes the situation even worse. Sand mining in South Africa has decimated
the flow of sand to the beaches in Durban, and the dredging of San Francisco Bay
may affect the beaches nearby. In Morocco, Algeria and Russian-occupied Crimea,
smugglers illegally mine the beaches themselves.

With seas rising as a result of climate change and beaches vanishing, coastal
communities are increasingly at risk. Since natural processes no longer maintain
many beaches, people turn to artificial “beach replenishment,” which has become
an industry worth billions. Federal and state governments have spent billions of
taxpayer dollars reconstructing beaches around the United States. Beaches around
the world have been rebuilt in this way. Sand mined to rebuild the beaches comes
from other locations.

People tend to think of beaches as a part of the nature, but many beaches are
“engineered environments built for profit,” and the original, natural beach and
shore have vanished. The creation of artificial beaches can be damaging to the
environment, because artificial beaches affect ecosystems and habitats. The only
serious alternative to rebuilding beaches is the least likely event: moving
cities farther away from the coast. Repairing beaches is unsustainable in the
long run. Sand will simply run out.


SAND ISLANDS IN THE SEA ARE OBLITERATING ECOSYSTEMS.

Austrian-born Josef Kleindienst is investing millions to turn a chain of
artificial sand islands off the coast of Dubai in the Persian Gulf into
luxurious holiday resorts with European themes. Kleindienst’s project may well
be the largest group of artificial islands ever fabricated. His project uses
hundreds of millions of tons of sand from the bottom of the Persian Gulf. With
their cosmopolitan themes, the resorts may be singularly pretentious, but they
aren’t the only attempt to build new land around the world. Similar projects are
rising in China, Japan, Nigeria and California’s Pacific coast.

> “The bigger question is, can the planet handle the whole way of life Dubai
> both represents and embodies?”

Building new islands in the sea with sand destroys the environment. Dredging
large amounts of sand from the bottom of the sea annihilates entire ecosystems.
And in places like China, the creation of new, offshore land masses can raise
dangerous geopolitical issues. On artificial islands in the South China Sea,
China immediately began constructing military installations, air and naval bases
that raise alarms in the international community.


CONCRETE IS TAKING OVER THE WORLD.

Since the turn of the millennium, nearly seven million people have moved to
Shanghai. During that same period, more skyscrapers were built in Shanghai than
exist in New York City, and the city added a major international airport and
many new roads. Builders had to manufacture staggering amounts of concrete and
use equally staggering amounts of sand. They mined most of that sand from the
bottom of the Yangtze River and Poyang Lake, 400 miles from Shanghai. Sand
mining wreaked havoc on the river and the lake. Humans need this much concrete
and sand, because people are moving to cities everywhere in the world. In
Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia, cities are turning into
“megacities.” Cities and the infrastructure that goes along with them couldn’t
grow to this size or at this speed without the extensive use of concrete.

> “The sands of time are running out.”

Once people believed natural resources were limitless. No one considered how
humans might sustain their lives, with their houses and malls, laptops and
cellphones, when Earth’s population is seven billion. Humans must now live lives
on more durable and sustainable foundations. 


ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Vince Beiser is an award-winning journalist.

This document is restricted to personal use only.

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