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MOUNT TAKAHE

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Volcano in Antarctica

Mount Takahe
Aerial view looking east. The prominent ridge at the center-left with the shadow
behind is Gill Bluff.
Highest pointElevation3,460 m (11,350 ft) Prominence2,144 m
(7,034 ft) [1][2]Listing
 * Ultra-prominent peak 

Coordinates76°17′S 112°05′W / 76.28°S 112.08°W / -76.28; -112.08Coordinates:
76°17′S 112°05′W / 76.28°S 112.08°W / -76.28; -112.08[3]Geography
Mount Takahe
Antarctica
LocationMarie Byrd Land, AntarcticaGeologyMountain typeShield volcanoVolcanic
fieldMarie Byrd Land Volcanic ProvinceLast eruption5550 BC (?)[3]

Mount Takahe is a 3,460-metre-high (11,350 ft) snow-covered shield volcano in
Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica, 200 kilometres (120 mi) from the Amundsen Sea. It
is a c. 30-kilometre-wide (19 mi) mountain with parasitic vents and a caldera up
to 8 kilometres (5 mi) wide. Most of the volcano is formed by trachytic lava
flows, but hyaloclastite is also found. Snow, ice, and glaciers cover most of
Mount Takahe. With a volume of 780 km3 (200 cu mi), it is a massive volcano; the
parts of the edifice that are buried underneath the West Antarctic Ice Sheet are
probably even larger. It is part of the West Antarctic Rift System along with
eighteen other known volcanoes.

The volcano was active in the Quaternary period, from 2.5 million years ago to
the present.[a] Radiometric dating has yielded ages of up to 300,000 years for
its rocks, and it reached its present height about 200,000 years ago. Several
tephra layers encountered in ice cores at Mount Waesche and Byrd Station have
been attributed to Mount Takahe, although some of them were later linked to
eruptions of Mount Berlin instead. The tephra layers were formed by explosive or
phreatomagmatic eruptions. Major eruptions took place around 17,700 years
ago—possibly forming an ozone hole over Antarctica—and in the early Holocene.[b]
Mount Takahe's last eruption occurred about 7,600 years ago, and there is no
present-day activity.


CONTENTS

 * 1 Geography and geomorphology
   * 1.1 Glaciation
 * 2 Geology
   * 2.1 Composition
 * 3 Eruption history
   * 3.1 Tephra in ice cores
   * 3.2 Holocene and recent activity
 * 4 See also
 * 5 Explanatory notes
 * 6 References
   * 6.1 Citations
   * 6.2 Sources
 * 7 External links


GEOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY[EDIT]

Mount Takahe is at the Bakutis Coast,[5] eastern Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica.
Bear Peninsula[6] and the Amundsen Sea coast are 200 kilometres (120 mi) north
of Mount Takahe.[7] It is an isolated mountain,[5] and the closest volcanoes are
Mount Murphy 100 kilometres (62 mi)[8] and Toney Mountain 140 kilometres (87 mi)
away.[9]

No major air routes or supply roads to Antarctic stations pass close to the
volcano,[10] and some parts of the edifice are accessible only by
helicopter.[11] The name of the volcano refers to the takahē, a flightless
nearly extinct bird from New Zealand; members of the 1957–1958 Marie Byrd Land
Traverse party nicknamed an aircraft that had resupplied them "takahe".[12]
Mount Takahe was first visited in 1957–1958 and again in 1968,[13] 1984-1985 and
1998-1999.[14]

The volcano rises 2,100 metres (6,900 ft) above the ice level[15] to a maximum
elevation of 3,460 metres (11,350 ft).[16][17][3][c] It is an undissected nearly
perfect cone,[5] a 30-kilometre-wide (19 mi) shield volcano[16] with an exposed
volume of about 780 cubic kilometres (190 cu mi).[21] The subglacial part, which
might bottom out at 1,340–2,030 metres (4,400–6,660 ft) below sea level,[22]
could have an even larger volume[21] and is elongated in an east–west
direction.[23] On its summit lies a flat, snow-filled 8-kilometre-wide (5 mi)
caldera[5] with a 10-metre-wide (33 ft) and 15-metre-high (50 ft) volcanic
neck.[24] A lava dome may crop out inside the caldera. Radial fissure vents are
found around the volcano, and vents also occur around the caldera rim.[25] There
are at least three[26] parasitic vents with basaltic composition on its lower
flanks,[27] with three cinder cones found on the western and southern
slopes.[25] One of these cinder cones has been described as a subdued
100-metre-wide (330 ft) vent.[24] The Jaron Cliffs are found on the southern
slope.[25]


Cliffs on the lower part of the volcano

The volcano is largely uneroded and thus exposures of its internal structure
that would allow reconstructing its history are rare.[28] Only twelve
outcrops,[d] with a total area of less than 0.5 square kilometres (0.19 sq mi),
emerge from the ice that covers Mount Takahe.[31] The interior structure of the
volcano is unknown.[29] Based on these outcrops, lava flows with a thickness of
2–10 metres (6 ft 7 in – 32 ft 10 in)[11] appear to be widespread on Mount
Takahe, while pyroclastic rocks such as deposits of Strombolian eruptions,
lapilli tuffs[32] and lahar deposits are less common.[25] Occurrences of
pyroclastic rocks at the summit have been correlated with tephra deposits
elsewhere in Antarctica.[33] Additional, obsidian-bearing[34] and recently
erupted lava bomb-and-block units crop out in the caldera rim,[35] at Bucher
Rim.[36] Tuyas reportedly exist at Mount Takahe.[37]


GLACIATION[EDIT]

Mount Takahe is almost entirely covered by ice of the West Antarctic Ice
Sheet,[31] which rises about 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level.[8] A
tributary of the Thwaites Glacier passes close to Mount Takahe.[38] There are
two small glaciers on the volcano itself, on the southwestern and northern
flanks.[8] They are eroding eruption products from the summit area,[35] and
moraines have been mapped both on the western flank and in the summit
caldera.[29] Glacial erosion is not pronounced, only a few corries cut into the
lower slopes.[39] The ice cover on the mountain includes both snow-covered and
ice-covered areas,[40] with sastrugi and other wind-roughened surfaces.[41] The
polar environment is cold and dry, which slows weathering processes.[11] Air
temperatures recorded at Mount Takahe are usually below freezing.[41]

Some rock units at the foot of the volcano were emplaced underneath ice or
water[31] and feature hyaloclastite and pillow lavas. These units rise to about
350–400 metres (1,150–1,310 ft) above the present-day ice level.[15] Some of
these units, such as Gill Bluff, Möll Spur and Stauffer Bluff, are
"hydrovolcanic deltas" comparable to lava deltas[42][8] which formed when lava
flows from Mount Takahe or parasitic vents entered the ice, generating meltwater
lakes surrounding the lavas.[43] They crop out at the base of the volcano and
are well preserved.[44] Ice elevation was not stable during the emplacement of
these deltas, and meltwater drained away, leading to the formation of diverse
structures within the hyaloclastite deltas.[45] The deltas may have formed
during ice highstands 66,000 and 22,000–15,000 years ago.[46]


GEOLOGY[EDIT]

The West Antarctic Rift System is a basin and range province similar to the
Great Basin in North America;[47] it cuts across Antarctica[48] from the Ross
Sea to the Bellingshausen Sea.[49] The Rift became active during the
Mesozoic.[e] Owing to thick ice cover it is not clear whether it is currently
active,[48] and there is no seismic activity. Most of the Rift lies below sea
level.[50] To the south it is flanked by the Transantarctic Mountains and to the
north by the volcanic province of Marie Byrd Land. Volcanic activity in Marie
Byrd Land commenced about 34 million years ago, but high activity began
14 million years ago.[51] A major uplifted dome, 1,200 by 500 kilometres (750 mi
× 310 mi) in width, is centred on the Amundsen Sea coast and is associated with
the Rift.[52]


Topographic map of Mount Takahe

About 18 central volcanoes were active in Marie Byrd Land from the Miocene[f] to
the Holocene.[15] Among the volcanic areas in Marie Byrd Land are the Flood
Range with Mount Berlin, the Ames Range, the Executive Committee Range with
Mount Sidley and Mount Waesche, the Crary Mountains, Toney Mountain, Mount
Takahe and Mount Murphy.[53] These volcanoes mainly occur in groups or
chains,[51] but there also are isolated edifices.[47] Mount Takahe is located in
the eastern Marie Byrd Land volcanic province[14] and with an estimated volume
of 5,520 cubic kilometres (1,320 cu mi)[g][55] could be the largest of the Marie
Byrd Land volcanoes, comparable to Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa.[56]

Most of these volcanoes are large, capped off by a summit caldera and appear to
have begun as fast-growing shield volcanoes. Later, calderas formed. Eventually,
late in the history of the volcanoes parasitic vents were active.[15] The
volcanoes are all surmounted by rocks composed of trachyte, phonolite,
pantellerite, or comendite.[57] Their activity has been attributed either to the
reactivation of crustal structures or to the presence of a mantle plume.[48] The
volcanoes rise from a Paleozoic basement.[51]

Mount Takahe may feature a large magma chamber[58] and a heat flow anomaly
underneath the ice has been found at the volcano.[59] A magnetic anomaly has
also been linked to the mountain.[60]


COMPOSITION[EDIT]

Trachyte is the most common rock on Mount Takahe, phonolite being less common.
Basanite, hawaiite, and mugearite are uncommon,[29] but the occurrence of
benmoreite[17] and pantellerite has been reported,[22] and some rocks have been
classified as andesites.[61] Hawaiite occurs exclusively in the older outcrops,
basanite only in parasitic vents[25] and mugearite only on the lower sector of
the volcano.[62] Despite this, most of the volcano is believed to consist of
mafic rocks with only about 10–15% of felsic rocks,[63] as the upper visible
portion of the volcano could be resting on a much larger buried base. The
parasitic vents probably make up less than 1% of the edifice.[7] Ice-lava
interactions produced hyaloclastite, palagonite and sideromelane.[8] No major
changes in magma chemistry occurred during the last 40,000 years[64] but some
variation has been recorded.[65]

All these rocks appear to have a common origin and define an
alkaline[29]–peralkaline suite.[66] Phenocrysts include mainly plagioclase, with
less common olivine and titanomagnetite;[67] apatite has been reported as
well.[61] The magmas appear to have formed through fractional crystallization at
varying pressures,[68] and ultimately came from the lithosphere at
80–90-kilometre (50–56 mi) depth,[69] that was affected by subduction
processes[70] over 85 million years ago.[13]


ERUPTION HISTORY[EDIT]

The volcano was active in the late Quaternary.[12] Radiometric results reported
in 1988 include ages of less than 360,000 years for rocks in the caldera rim and
of less than 240,000 years for volcanic rocks on the flanks.[71] In his 1990
book Volcanoes of the Antarctic Plate and Southern Oceans LeMasurier gave
310,000±90,000 years old as the oldest date for samples tested, citing
unpublished K-Ar dates,[12] but in a 2016 review of dates for Mount Takahe
LeMasurier reported that none were older than 192,000 years.[72] A 2013 paper
also by LeMasurier reported maximum ages of 192,000 years for caldera rim rocks
and of 66,000 years for lower flank rocks.[22] The entire volcano may have
formed in less than 400,000 years[73] or even less than 200,000 years, which
would imply a fast growth of the edifice.[22] Rocks aged 192,000±6,300 years old
are found at the summit caldera, implying that the volcano had reached its
present-day height by then.[74]

Early research indicated that most of Mount Takahe formed underneath the ice,
but more detailed field studies concluded that most of the volcano developed
above the ice surface.[31] The ice surface has fluctuated over the life of Mount
Takahe with an increased thickness during marine isotope stages 4 and 2,[75]
explaining why units originally emplaced under ice or water now lie above the
ice surface[35] and alternate with lava flow deposits.[5] These elevated
deposits were emplaced about 29,000–12,000 years ago[76] while the lava
delta-like deposits are between about 70,000 and 15,000 years old.[77] After it
grew out of the ice, Mount Takahe increased in size through the emission of lava
flows with occasional pyroclastic eruptions.[78] Outcrops in the summit region
indicate that most eruptions were magmatic, but some hydromagmatic activity
occurred.[35] Cinder cones and tuff cones formed during the late stage of
activity.[3]


TEPHRA IN ICE CORES[EDIT]

Tephra layers in ice cores drilled at Byrd Station have been attributed to Mount
Takahe.[79] The volcano reaches an altitude high enough that tephras erupted
from it can readily penetrate the tropopause and spread over Antarctica through
the stratosphere.[80] The occurrence of several volcanic eruptions in the region
about 30,000 years ago has been suggested to have caused a cooling of the
climate of Antarctica,[81] but it is also possible that the growth of the ice
sheets at that time squeezed magma chambers at Mount Takahe and thus induced an
increase of the eruptive activity.[82]

Assuming that most tephra layers at Byrd come from Mount Takahe, it has been
inferred that the volcano was very active between 60,000 and 7,500 years ago,
with nine eruptive periods and two pulses between 60,000–57,000 and
40,000–14,000 years ago. In the latter part of the latter period hydrovolcanic
eruptions became dominant at Mount Takahe, with a maximum around the time when
the Wisconsin glaciation ended.[78] It is possible that between 18,000 and
15,000 years ago, either a crater lake formed in the caldera or the vents were
buried by snow and ice. The caldera itself might have formed between 20,000 and
15,000 years ago, probably not through a large explosive eruption.[64]

It cannot be entirely ruled out that Byrd Station tephras originate at other
volcanoes of Marie Byrd Land[83] such as Mount Berlin. In particular, tephra
layers between 30,000 and 20,000 years ago have been attributed to the latter
volcano.[84][85]

Tephra layers from Mount Takahe have also been found at Dome C,[86] Dome F,[87]
Mount Takahe itself,[88] Mount Waesche,[89] Siple Dome[90][h] and elsewhere in
Antarctica.[89] Apart from ice cores, tephras attributed to Mount Takahe have
been found in sediment cores taken from the sea.[91] Volcanic eruptions at Mount
Takahe lack the pyroclastic flow deposits observed in other large explosive
eruptions.[11] The thickness of the Byrd ice core tephras attributed to Mount
Takahe suggested that the eruptions were not large,[83] but later research has
indicated that large Plinian eruptions also occurred.[92]

A series of eruptions about 200 years long took place at Mount Takahe
17,700 years ago.[93] These eruptions have been recorded from ice cores at the
WAIS Divide[93] and at Taylor Glacier in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, where they
constrain estimates of the rate of deglaciation.[94] These eruptions released a
large quantity of halogens into the stratosphere,[93] which together with the
cold and dry climate conditions of the last glacial maximum would presumably
have led to massive ozone destruction and the formation of an ozone hole.[95]
Bromine and sulfur isotope data indicate that the amount of UV radiation in the
atmosphere did increase at that time in Antarctica.[95] As is the case with the
present-day ozone hole, the ozone hole created by the Takahe eruptions might
have altered the Antarctic climate and sped up deglaciation, which was
accelerating at that time,[96] but later research has determined that the
warming was most likely not volcanically forced.[97]


HOLOCENE AND RECENT ACTIVITY[EDIT]

Activity waned after this point, two hydromagmatic eruptions being recorded
13,000 and 9,000 years ago and a magmatic eruption 7,500 years ago.[64] This
last eruption is also known from the Byrd ice core[98] and may correspond to an
eruption 8,200±5,400 years ago[85] recorded at Mount Waesche[99] and the Takahe
edifice[74] and to two 6217 and 6231 BC tephra layers at Siple Dome.[100] Tephra
from a 8,200 before present eruption has been recorded at Siple Dome and Mount
Waesche.[101] A 7,900 before present eruption at Mount Takahe is one of the
strongest eruptions at Siple Dome and Byrd Station of the last
10,000 years.[102] Another eruption reported by the Global Volcanism Program may
have occurred in 7050 BC.[103] At Siple Dome, a further eruption between 10,700
and 5,600 years ago is recorded[104] and one tephra layer around 1783 BC
(accompanied by increased sulfate concentrations in ice) might also come from
Mount Takahe.[105] Glass shards at Law Dome emplaced in 1552 and 1623 AD may
come from this volcano as well.[106]

The Global Volcanism Program reports 5550 BC as the date of the most recent
eruption,[3] and the volcano is currently considered dormant.[107] There is no
evidence of fumarolic activity or warm ground,[108][12] unlike at Mount Berlin,
which is the other young volcano of Marie Byrd Land.[109] Seismic activity
recorded at 9–19 kilometres (5.6–11.8 mi) depth around the volcano may be linked
to its activity.[110] Mount Takahe has been prospected for the possibility of
obtaining geothermal energy.[58]


SEE ALSO[EDIT]

 * List of Ultras of Antarctica
 * List of volcanoes in Antarctica


EXPLANATORY NOTES[EDIT]

 1. ^ From 2.58 million years ago to present.[4]
 2. ^ The Holocene began 11,700 years ago and continues to the present day.[4]
 3. ^ Alternative heights of 3,398 metres (11,148 ft)[18] or 3,390 metres
    (11,120 ft) have also been reported.[19] The initial measurements and
    airborne measurements of Mount Takahe's height have discrepancies of as much
    as 103 metres (338 ft).[20]
 4. ^ The outcrops include Knezevich Rock on the northern foot, Stauffer Bluff
    on the north-northeastern foot, Oeschger Bluff on the southeastern foot,
    Möll Spur on the southern foot, Bucher Rim on the south-southwestern caldera
    rim, at Steur Glacier on the southern flank, Cadenazzi Rock on the western
    flank, Roper Point at the west-southwest foot and Gill Bluff on the
    northwestern foot.[29] The latter (76°14′S 112°33′W / 76.233°S 112.550°W
    / -76.233; -112.550) is a rock bluff on the northwest side of Mount Takahe,
    in Marie Byrd Land. It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey
    (USGS) from ground surveys and U.S. Navy air photos (1959–1966) and was
    named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Allan Gill,
    aurora researcher at Byrd Station in 1963.[30]
 5. ^ Between 251.902 ± 0.024 and 66 million years ago.[4]
 6. ^ From 23.03 million years ago to 5.333 million years ago.[4]
 7. ^ Of which 780 cubic kilometres (190 cu mi) risee above the surrounding
    ice.[54]
 8. ^ A tephra layer emplaced at Siple Dome 19,700 years ago has been correlated
    to eruptions at Takahe.[90]


REFERENCES[EDIT]


CITATIONS[EDIT]

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EXTERNAL LINKS[EDIT]

 * "Skiing the Pacific Ring of Fire and Beyond". Amar Andalkar's Ski
   Mountaineering and Climbing Site. 2007 [1997]. Retrieved 14 January 2005.



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