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Home > Books > Sonochemical Reactions
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
APPLICATION OF HIGH-POWER ULTRASOUND IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
Written By
Leire Astráin-Redín, Salomé Ciudad-Hidalgo, Javier Raso, Santiago Condón,
Guillermo Cebrián and Ignacio Álvarez
Submitted: September 4th, 2019 Reviewed: November 11th, 2019 Published: December
30th, 2019
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.90444
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this chapter is to summarize potential applications of the
high-power ultrasound technology (5 W/cm2; 20–100 kHz) in the food industry.
Those applications are mainly related to the improvement in mass and energy
transfer in different processes when ultrasound is applied in water or through
air, e.g., reduction in dehydration; thawing and freezing times and energy costs
of plant-, meat-, or fish-based products; increase the extraction yields of
intracellular compounds with biological activity; reduction of chemical health
risks such as cadmium or acrylamide; etc. The influence of some physical
parameters like temperature and pressure in cavitation intensity and the
potential of this technology to even inactivate microorganisms in food products
and surfaces in contact with food will be discussed. Several examples of these
applications will be presented, with reference to some of the industrial or
pilot plant systems available in the market to be implemented in the food
industry.
KEYWORDS
* mass transfer
* heat transfer
* cavitation
* food preservation
* food quality
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Show +
* LEIRE ASTRÁIN-REDÍN
* Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Tecnología
de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de
Aragón (IA2), Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain
* SALOMÉ CIUDAD-HIDALGO
* Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Tecnología
de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de
Aragón (IA2), Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain
* JAVIER RASO
* Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Tecnología
de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de
Aragón (IA2), Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain
* SANTIAGO CONDÓN
* Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Tecnología
de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de
Aragón (IA2), Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain
* GUILLERMO CEBRIÁN
* Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Tecnología
de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de
Aragón (IA2), Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain
* IGNACIO ÁLVAREZ*
* Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Tecnología
de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de
Aragón (IA2), Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain
*Address all correspondence to: ialvalan@unizar.es
1. INTRODUCTION
Ultrasound is considered an emerging technology in the food industry that is
gaining interest due to its potential to improve several process including mass
and energy transfer processes among others. It also enables to obtain safer and
higher quality products than with traditional procedures. Furthermore, it should
be remarked that it is also considered a safe, nonpolluting and environmentally
friendly technology [1].
Ultrasonic technology consists of the application of mechanical waves with
frequency over the threshold of human hearing (>16 kHz) [2]. Depending on its
frequency and intensity, the ultrasonic spectrum can be further divided into
low-frequency (20–100 kHz) high-power (>1 W/cm2) ultrasound and high-frequency
(>100 kHz) low-power (<1 W/cm2) ultrasound. Low-power ultrasound is applied for
noninvasive and nondestructive analyses, and it is mainly used in other areas
such as medicine and cosmetics. In the food industry, this type of ultrasonic
waves is basically used for process and quality control (e.g., fluid flow and
container filling control, location of foreign bodies, or evaluation of the
homogenization and/or emulsification efficiency). In contrast, high-power
ultrasound is able to produce changes in the material or process to which they
are applied, and it is used in a large variety of processes in the food industry
(e.g., surface cleaning and decontamination, microbial and enzymatic
inactivation, degassing, defoaming, and improvement of mass transfer, among
others). Therefore, high-power ultrasound is the one of great interest in the
food industry, and in this chapter, it will be discussed in more detail.
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2. EFFECTS OF ULTRASOUND IN FOOD MATRICES MECHANISM OF ACTION
Ultrasonic sound waves propagate through air, water, and solid media, generating
pressure variations that cause the vibration of particles in the medium. The
effects of the application of high-power ultrasound in food products are
therefore dependent on the medium of propagation (liquid, solid or gas) and also
on the parameters of the process such as frequency, intensity, pressure, and
temperature, among others. Applying ultrasound in liquid medium is the simplest
and the most common process in the food industry. Cavitation is the main
phenomenon responsible of ultrasound effects when applied to a liquid.
Basically, cavitation occurs when the microbubbles present in the liquid
increase in size as a result of the cycles of high and low pressure generated by
the ultrasonic waves until they become unstable and collapse releasing a large
amount of energy (theoretically up to 5000 K and 1000 atm) [1]. As a
consequence, different effects are generated. These can be divided into physical
and chemical effects. Within the physical effects, microjets and microstreaming
phenomena are the most relevant ones. Microjets are high-pressure water streams
projected to the surface of solids that lead to the formation of pores and
surface erosion, causing the release of material into the medium depending on
the intensity of the jets. By contrast, microstreaming occurs in the middle of
the surrounding liquid, and when its speed is high enough, it can break membrane
cells, release intracellular enzymes, etc. [3]. These physical effects are more
likely to occur at low frequencies (20–40 kHz) when the number of cavitation
spots is low but the energy associated to them is higher. At higher frequencies
(80–100 kHz), the number of spots is higher, but bubble size is smaller, so the
energy released is lower and the prevalent effects are mainly chemical [4]. The
primary radicals that are generated by ultrasound are H• and •OH, which can be
then recombined to form other reactive species (H2, H2O2) [5]. Therefore,
depending on both the ultrasound intensity and, mainly, frequency, different
effects, physical or chemical, are produced.
On the other hand, when an ultrasonic wave passes through a solid medium, it
produces a series of alternating contractions and expansions, a phenomenon known
as the “sponge effect,” which facilitates the transfer of matter with the medium
surrounding the solid [6]. Moreover, this mechanical stress can cause the
formation of microchannels in the interior of the solid, also favoring mass
transfer processes. In this case, it is unlikely that the cavitation phenomenon
would occur in the liquid phase of the solid matrix [7].
Finally, although the application of high-intensity ultrasound is more
complicated in gas medium, its effects on the solid/gas interface are
particularly interesting, including pressure variation, oscillating flow, and
microstreams [8]. The development of efficient ultrasonic systems to be applied
in for gas medium is highly limited by the power loss that occurs when sound
waves are propagating through air and by the mismatch between acoustic
impedances of gases and solids or liquids [9]. As it will be discussed below,
its main application is the improvement of food dehydration processes and
defoaming.
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3. FACTORS AFFECTING CAVITATION
In the food industry, ultrasound is applied trough a liquid media in most
applications, becoming cavitation the main mechanisms of action in these
processes, as pointed out above. However, in order to apply ultrasound
effectively to these food matrices, it is necessary to consider a group of
factors influencing the cavitation phenomenon, including the characteristics of
the ultrasound source (frequency, amplitude, ultrasonic supplier),
characteristics of the treatment medium (solid particles, gas bubbles,
viscosity), and treatment conditions (pressure and temperature) [2]. Regarding
the characteristics of ultrasound source, the frequency and amplitude are the
most important parameters that condition the effects of the treatment. As stated
above, frequency determines the size of the bubbles and, thus, the intensity of
the implosion. Amplitude is directly related to the amount of energy supplied to
the system and the ultrasonic intensity [3]. At high amplitudes, the oscillation
of the bubbles is higher, being the implosion more powerful and leading to
further effects derived from cavitation. However, depending on the desired
effects, this may not always be of interest, and therefore it is essential to
optimize the treatment parameters. For example, for hydrating thawed cod
fillets, the highest weight gain (18%) of fillets after 48 hours of hydration
was observed when applying the 10% of the power of an ultrasound system of
35 kHz and 200 W. When ultrasound was working at the maximum amplitude of the
system (100%), 12% of weight gain was observed, which was a lower value than
that of the control process without using ultrasound (14%) [10]. As it will be
discussed later on, both frequency and amplitude condition the ultrasonic
supplier which defines the way of application of ultrasound to the product and
its effects.
Besides the state of the treatment medium (solid, liquid or gas), solid
particles, gas bubbles, and viscosity also influence cavitation. The presence of
solid particles and gas bubbles act as nucleation points which enhance the
formation of bubbles reducing the effects of cavitation. Regarding the viscosity
of the medium, bubble formation is more difficult the higher the viscosity of
the medium is, but the implosion is more powerful. Moreover, ultrasound has
interesting effects in viscous products in order to improve energy transfer as
it will be discussed below.
Finally, temperature and static pressure are key factors conditioning cavitation
which are modified depending on the application. Thus, the increment of
temperature reduces the viscosity of the medium and raises the vapor pressure
enabling bubble formation. However, the amount of vapor inside the bubbles
increases with temperature, producing the cushioning of the collapse and leading
to a lower intensity of cavitation. Therefore, it is considered that there is an
optimal temperature at which acoustic cavitation is maximum [11]. On the
contrary, when pressure increases, cavitation is hindered, but when the
implosion happens, the energy released is considerably higher. Based on these
effects of temperature and pressure, two processes have been defined:
manosonication (MS) and manothermosonication (MTS) which have been shown to
offer new possibilities of ultrasound at temperatures near or even above 100°C
as it will be commented later on.
In summary, many factors have to be considered when designing ultrasound
equipment and processes in the food industry in order to secure an efficient
application.
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4. BASIC ULTRASOUND SYSTEMS USED IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
Since the application of ultrasound in the food industry is very dependent on
the ultrasound supplier, it is worthy to consider this point.
There are different ultrasound systems for food applications depending on the
treatment medium and the desired effect. It is essential to achieve a successful
fit between application system and treatment medium in order to be able to
transfer the maximum amount of acoustic energy to the medium. As indicated, the
application of ultrasound through liquid medium is the most used in the food
industry. For this application, commercial equipment can be divided into two
types: ultrasound water baths (indirect application) and probes or horns (direct
application). Ultrasonic water baths are widely used due to their lower price
and easy maintenance. They consist of a tank to which one or more piezoelectric
transducers (40–130 kHz) are connected at the bottom or at the sides and the
generated sound waves are propagated through the water or other liquid medium in
which the food product is immersed (Figure 1(a)) [12]. The ultrasonic intensity
is low (0.1–1 W/cm2), and the treatment is less homogeneous throughout the
volume due to the formation of nodes [11]. In the food industry, this type of
equipment has been used for surface cleaning, degassing, enzymatic and microbial
inactivation, improvement of mass transfer, etc. [13]. On the other hand, horn
or probe is a direct system in which the food product is in contact to the
ultrasound supplier. These equipment allow to apply higher intensities
(>5 W/cm2) than water baths, but they are more expensive. In these systems,
three parts can be differenced (Figure 1(b)): the transducer, the amplifier of
the ultrasonic signal, and the horn. The tip of the horn has to be introduced
into the sonication medium, so this design is mainly used for treating liquid
foods, but application in solids has also been described [14, 15]. Depending on
the shape of the horn, its application will be determined and used for cell
disruption, homogenization, cutting of soft products, etc. [16].
FIGURE 1.
Ultrasound generation systems: (a) ultrasonic bath, (b) probe or horn, and (c)
airborne transducer.
The equipment developed for the application of ultrasound through the air
(called airborne) is less common due to the difficulty of its design. The type
of transducer used for this application differs depending on the application:
stepped plate, ribbed plate, stepped-ribbed plate, and cylindrical radiator [1,
13, 17]. The basic structure is a piezoelectric transducer in sandwich
configuration and an amplifier or horn (Figure 1(c)). The horn is attached to a
radiator which vibrates, and due to its surface, the resistance increases, and
the differences in impedance between the transducer and medium are reduced. This
kind of systems is very well described in the works of Gallego-Juárez et al. [1]
and Charoux et al. [17], among other publications.
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5. APPLICATIONS OF HIGH-POWER ULTRASOUND IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
In recent years, numerous applications of high-power ultrasound have been
developed in food processing, including product quality control, emulsification,
food preservation, and improvement of mass and energy transfer processes. Some
of these applications are summarized in this part of the chapter.
5.1 EMULSION FORMATION
The use of ultrasound for obtaining emulsions was one of the first applications
in the food industry. An emulsion is a heterogeneous system formed by two
immiscible liquids in which one of them is dispersed in the other in the form of
small droplets with a diameter—in general—lower than 1 mm.
Li and Fogler [18, 19] originally proposed a mechanism for explaining the
emulsifying capacity of ultrasound that was later confirmed by high-speed
photography [20], consisting of two steps. First, the acoustic waves generate
instability at the interface of the two liquids, causing large drops of oil to
propel them into the aqueous phase. Second, cavitation produces microcurrents
and shear forces that reduce the droplet size needed to form the emulsion [21].
There are many studies on ultrasound-assisted emulsion preparation [20, 22, 23,
24]. In general, these studies conclude that it was possible to obtain emulsions
that have smaller particle size, are less polydisperse, and are more stable than
by agitation by using ultrasound. For example, in a study comparing the use of
ultrasound with traditional agitation [25], the application of ultrasound
allowed the elaboration of a nanoemulsion of mustard oil in water with an
interfacial area of 67-fold greater than that obtained mechanically. In
addition, the sonicated emulsions had a narrower particle size distribution
(0.82–44.6 μm) than the control emulsions (8.1–610 μm).
Due to the emulsifying capacity of ultrasounds, they are recently being used as
encapsulation systems in the food industry [26]. Some high-value nutrients are
encapsulated in the food matrix to avoid functional losses, organoleptic losses,
undesirable reactions with other compounds, etc. Ghasemi and Abbasi [27]
combined the alkalization of pH with the application of ultrasound (25 kHz,
600 W) to encapsulate oils with a high content of polyunsaturated acids in
skimmed milk.
5.2 FOOD PRESERVATION
5.2.1 MICROBIAL AND ENZYME INACTIVATION
The main agents responsible for food spoilage are enzymes and microorganisms.
Moreover, pathogenic microorganisms are responsible of food poisoning and food
outbreaks, requiring therefore their control or inactivation. There are several
strategies to limit their action (i.e., reducing temperature, controlling water
activity, etc., of foods) and to inactivate them, mainly by heat treatments.
Thermal pasteurization and sterilization are the most common technologies used
for enzyme and microbial inactivation in order to obtain safe and stable food
products. However, the intensity of these treatments can lead to loss of
nutrients and deterioration of sensory characteristics and functional properties
of food [16, 28]. Due to this, technologies which enable to inactivate those
agents at lower temperatures are under evaluation being ultrasound a
possibility.
Bacterial inactivation with ultrasound has been widely studied and even
suggested as a possible food preservation method [29, 30, 31]. Microbial
inactivation is mainly induced by the physical effects of cavitation such as
shear forces, shock waves, and microcurrents that can damage cell integrity by
weakening or breaking cell envelopes [32, 33]. However, its lethal effect is
reduced and requires prolonged periods of time [34, 35], limiting its
application as a food preservation system. Due to its low bactericidal efficacy
and in order to increase its lethality, ultrasound is applied over atmospheric
pressure (manosonication, MS), combined with heat (manothermosonication, MTS)
and with other nonthermal technologies (pulsed electric fields, high hydrostatic
pressures, UV light) [36, 37]. From all these combinations, MS and MTS showed
the most promising results since vegetative cells and even bacterial spores can
be inactivated at low temperatures (40°C) [32, 33, 38], as summarized in Figure
2. The possibility of inactivating vegetative cells and spores opens the way to
design alternative processes to thermal pasteurization and sterilization by
using MTS treatments at lower temperatures than those used in traditional
thermal treatments [32, 33, 38]. However, the required ultrasound intensities to
achieve several log10 cycles of microbial inactivation are still far away for
its industrial application due to technical limitations.
FIGURE 2.
Log10 cycles of inactivation of Aeromonas hydrophila (ah), Listeria
monocytogenes (lm), Staphylococcus aureus (Sa), Enterococcus faecium (Ef),
Bacillus circulans (Bc) (spore), and Bacillus subtilis (Bs) (spore) treated in
McIlvaine buffer pH 7.0 with MS (0.2 MPa, 40°C, 450 W and 4 minutes, for spores
15 minutes*). Adapted from [31, 45].
Likewise, ultrasound is also effective for inactivating enzymes, but very long
processing times are required. However, when combined with heat
(thermo-sonication, TS), pressure (MS), or heat and pressure (MTS), processing
times can also be reduced. For example, the application of MTS is able to reduce
the heat resistance of enzymes by 2–400-fold such as alkaline phosphatase,
polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, lipase, lipoxygenase, pectin methylesterase, and
polygalacturonase compared to heat treatments applied at the same temperature
[32, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45]. As an example, Figure 3 shows the activity
reduction of pectin methylesterase of tomato juice treated by heat, MS, and MTS
treatments at 62.5°C and 1 minute. As can be observed, the MTS treatment led to
a complete inactivation of the enzyme, being this effect higher than the
addition of the heat and MS inactivation effects when applied separately
(synergistic effect).
FIGURE 3.
Activity reduction of pectin methylesterase of tomato juice treated by heat, MS,
and MTS treatments at 62.5°C and 1 minute (ultrasonic conditions: 20 kHz, 750 W,
0.2 MPa). Adapted from [40].
5.2.2 MICROBIAL DECONTAMINATION AND SURFACE CLEANING
Cleaning and decontamination of food equipment and/or surfaces in contact with
food are among the first applications of ultrasound in the food industry besides
emulsification. The main phenomena responsible for its effect are cavitation and
microstreaming formed in the washing liquid. The collapse of the bubbles
generates high-pressure microjets that impact the surface which favor the
dissolution of compounds and the release of the particles (including
microorganisms) adhered to the solid. The surfaces of the solids have
irregularities and pores limiting the cleaning effectivity of traditional
systems. However, ultrasounds are able to get access and get a deeper cleaning
enhancing also the effectiveness of chemical cleaning by favoring the release of
contaminants such as oils, proteins, and even microbial biofilms, making them
more accessible to chemicals [12, 46]. Nevertheless, it is important to notice
that as the ultrasonic field is not uniform throughout the treatment medium, the
same levels of decontamination may not be achieved throughout the whole material
or surface [47].
In the food industry, ultrasonic baths can also be used to clean and
decontaminate surfaces of products such as vegetables, fruit, eggs, fish, etc.,
but always bear in mind that in the best scenario, a microbial inactivation of 1
Log10 cycle (90% reduction of the microbial population) could be achieved. Based
on this, in meat industry, water-steam-based-systems combined with ultrasound
have been recently proposed for poultry carcasses decontamination [48]. Thus,
Boysen and Rosenquist [49] studied the inactivation of Campylobacter from
broiler skins after applying different physical decontamination methods. They
observed that steam-ultrasound was the most effective method achieving an
inactivation of 2.5 Log10 reductions, 1 Log10 extra-reduction compared with
other systems. However, the carcasses appeared to be slightly boiled after the
treatment. Musavian et al. [50] decontaminated broiler carcasses with ultrasound
(30–40 kHz) and steam (90–94°C) combination and observed additional reduction of
1–1.4 Log10 cycles of Campylobacter after applying 10 s of treatment. An example
of this application is the SonoSteam system [51].
Regarding the cleaning of equipment surfaces, a widely known example in the food
industry is the application of ultrasound for cleaning wine-aging barrels. It
allows an effective cleaning even within the wood pores where spoilage
microorganisms such as Brettanomyces are located, since ultrasound can remove
part of the layers created by the precipitation of crystallized tartrates [52].
The additional advantage of this effect is that the aroma of the oak is
maintained, reducing maintenance costs and the need to replace the barrels [53].
Finally, one of the most recent applications in terms of cleaning has been the
use of ultrasound for the disintegration of bacterial biofilms generated on
working surfaces of the food industry that can lead to cross-contaminant
phenomena. Thus, the use of ultrasound would allow to reduce the formation or
even to eliminate these biofilms, for example, in conveyor belts used for the
transportation of foods inside the industry [54]. An industrial example of this
application has been developed by Lubing systems [55].
Besides the ultrasound-assisted microbial decontamination, a recent study has
demonstrated the potential of ultrasound for reducing the heavy metal load from
foods. Condón-Abanto et al. [56] observed that the cadmium content of edible
crabs (Cancer pagurus) was reduced by 23% after their immersion in water at 50°C
for 40 minutes applying ultrasound (35 kHz, 200 W). The same treatment without
ultrasound scarcely reduced the Cd content of 2%. These results open the
possibility of reducing chemical contaminants or other chemical risks present in
foods by using ultrasound as it will be discussed later on.
5.3 MASS TRANSFER
The processes of mass transfer between two phases consist of the transfer of a
certain component from one phase to another as a result of the difference in
concentration between both phases. In the food industry, mass transfer occurs in
many processes, such as the extraction of compounds of interest from inside the
cells of a food product (sucrose, colorants, etc.), the elimination of water in
processes like drying/dehydration, or the incorporation of solids as it happens
when marinating and/or pickling.
5.3.1 EXTRACTION
The traditional method for the extraction of intracellular compounds of interest
for the food industry (sugar, colorants, bioactive substances such as
polyphenols, etc.) consists on using an adequate solvent combined with other
systems such as heat, agitation, etc. However, this technique has some
disadvantages such as the high electrical consumption—becoming up to 70% of the
required energy to extract a certain compound—high water requirements, and the
use of toxic or contaminant solvents. For this reason, the food industry has
struggled to find more profitable and eco-friendly methods for the extraction of
compounds [16, 57], such as ultrasound, which improves the extraction efficiency
by applying lower temperatures and shorter processing times than traditional
extracting methods [58].
The extraction of aromatic compounds, antioxidants, pigments, and other organic
or inorganic substances from tissues, mostly vegetal, has been widely
investigated and successfully carried out by applying high-power ultrasound [59,
60, 61, 62, 63]. The application of ultrasound to a vegetable product immersed
in a liquid medium can induce rapid fragmentation of the material, increasing
the surface area of the solid in contact with the solvent and accelerating the
mass transfer and, therefore, the extraction rate and yield [64]. Several
advantages have been pointed out for the ultrasound-assisted extraction
including the reduction of extraction time, energy, and the amount of solvent
used and of unit operations and also a rapid return of investment [57]. As a way
of example, Figure 4 shows the extraction yield of chlorophyll from spinach
leaves by using or not ultrasound (20 kHz) [57]. As observed, the amount of
chlorophyll extracted was fourfold higher than in the control process after
20 minutes of maceration using ultrasound and more than double than the control
after 80 minutes of extraction.
FIGURE 4.
Total chlorophylls concentration (μg/ml) extracted from spinach leaves treated
(filled bars) or not (white bars) with ultrasound (20 kHz). Adapted from [57].
Besides the recovery of compounds of interest, also the extraction of potential
risky compounds for human health is under investigation like oligosaccharides
from pulses or Cd from edible crabs [65, 56]. In the same direction, the use of
ultrasound has been recently evaluated for reducing the acrylamide content of
fried potatoes which is a carcinogenic compound. By applying a pre-frying
treatment of 30 minutes by immersing potatoes in an ultrasound water bath at
35 kHz, 92.5 W/kg, and 42°C, Antunes-Rohling et al. [66] obtained a 90%
reduction in acrylamide compared to potatoes directly fried and a 50% reduction
compared to potatoes soaked in water but with no ultrasound applied.
Based on the showed possibilities of ultrasound for extracting compounds of
interest, different semi-industrial systems have been developed which are
detailed in the revision of Chemat et al. [16]. More recently, and based on the
works done in the winery industry, a continuous ultrasound system has been
constructed in order to improve the extraction of polyphenolic compounds from
grapes [67]. Wine is a product highly appreciated for its organoleptic
properties such as color, aroma, and flavor. The application of ultrasound has
been studied in the wine maceration process to favor the extraction of
polyphenols responsible for color [68] and in the lees (aging on lees) for the
extraction of polysaccharides responsible for color stability, mouthfeel, and
reduction of wine’s astringency [69].
5.3.2 DRYING AND DEHYDRATION
In the food industry, drying and dehydration of foods are important preserving
processes where mass and energy transfer phenomena occur. They consist of
removing a large part of the water from the food in order to improve the
stability of the product, reducing its volume and weight and facilitating the
handling and transport of the products [70, 71]. Currently, one of the most
widespread techniques in the food industry is air convection dehydration.
However, it is an energetically costly operation and, in some cases, requires
long periods of time. In order to reduce drying times, some industrial
strategies exist, such as increasing the temperature of the air, which can cause
alterations in the composition and structure of foods, or increasing the air
speed that might lead to the formation of a dry and impermeable layer that can
inhibit the exit of humidity from the interior of the product [70].
Ultrasound has been evaluated as an alternative to traditional dehydration
systems. In this case, the water removal process is improved mainly by the
phenomenon known as “sponge effect” which enhances the diffusion of water from
the interior of the product to the surface [72]. Nonetheless, cavitation of
intracellular and extracellular water may also occur, forming new microchannels
[73]. In addition, the application of ultrasound through the air generates
turbulence that produces an important microstreaming at the interface between
food and air which help remove surface moisture [74].
Ultrasound-assisted dehydration in food has been researched since the 1950s and
1960s, but it has been in recent years when major advances have been made since
new family of piezoelectric transducers with extensive radiating surface have
been developed [75]. There are two types of ultrasound application systems in
food dehydration processes: by direct contact between the transducer and the
food and by indirect contact through the air (airborne ultrasound systems).
Contact systems, even though they are more efficient, can cause product damage,
equipment development is complicated, and specific hygiene requirements are
necessary. In any case, very promising results were obtained by De la
Fuente-Blanco et al. [72], drying carrot cylinders achieving a faster loss of
water than the usual dehydration by forced air process and obtaining a final
moisture content in the product of less than 1%.
More studies have been carried out with airborne ultrasound systems, reducing
drying times by 20–30% when applied at low temperatures and low air velocities
[70]. For example, García-Pérez et al. [76] developed a convection drying
equipment applying ultrasound to the air, in which the treatment chamber
consisted of a vibratory aluminum cylinder coupled to a transducer (21.8 kHz,
75 W). In this study, they achieved a reduction of 26.7% in drying time of
carrot skin samples when dried at 40°C and 0.6 m/s. The effect of air
temperature (30–70°C) on the speed of drying with ultrasound was demonstrated by
the same authors [77]. They obtained an increase in diffusion coefficient of
23.6% at 30°C, while at 70°C only 1.3%. These studies indicate that at either
high air velocities or high temperatures, the effects of these parameters
predominate over ultrasound.
In addition to improving convection drying processes, studies have also been
carried out on the application of ultrasound in vacuum drying [78, 79] or in
freeze-drying [80, 81] obtaining higher drying rates than the traditional
process.
As it can be appreciated, the obtained results are promising; however, at
present, pilot or industrial systems are scarce. The main technological
challenges to address are basically reducing the overheating produced by the
transducers and adapting the frequency and ultrasonic power to the working
conditions, taking into account the acoustic impedance, attenuation, and
absorption of the product to be dehydrated [73].
5.3.3 MARINATING AND PICKLING
Marinating and pickling are food preservation techniques used in vegetables,
meat, and fish products. Brine, vinegar, or other organic acids; oil; and spices
are usually used. In general, long processes are required, which involves the
immobilization of the product resulting in economic costs and also potentially
leading to structural damage, softening, and swelling, which might affect the
quality of the product [16]. The application of high-power ultrasound between
frequencies of 20 and 50 kHz has made possible to shorten pickling or brine
contact times. Besides, in the case of meat such as pork loin, the water and
salt content of the samples was increased (63–65% and 7–50%, respectively) when
ultrasound (20 kHz, >39 W/cm2) was applied compared to brining in static mode
and with mechanical agitation. With an intensity higher than 64 W/cm2, the water
content of the samples after the process was even higher than that of fresh meat
[82]. Improvement of water intake has been observed also in fish. Thus, a 6%
higher water intake of thawed cod fillets after 48 hours of hydration than the
standard process when applying ultrasound (40 kHz, 3.9 W/kg) was observed [10].
5.4 ENERGY TRANSFER
Energy transfer (e.g., heating or freezing) together with mass transfer are
common unit operations in the food industry. Both direct and indirect
applications of ultrasound have been used to increase the energy transfer rates
of traditional heating/freezing systems. Ultrasonic waves produce a direct
heating of the product/medium due to the great energy released in the medium, as
well as an intense agitation favoring a faster and more uniform heating of the
product. On the other hand, the vibration caused by the indirect application of
ultrasound accelerates the transfer of heat from traditional systems, both to
release it in cooling processes and to provide it when heating.
5.4.1 HEATING
The use of ultrasound to improve heating of liquid and solid foods is known
since the 1960s [83]. However, scarce scientific information has been published
till recent years. It has been described that ultrasound (20 kHz, 75 W) can
increase the conductive heat transfer when applied in metals by 2.3- and
5.5-folds [83], becoming this effect the basis of the design of heat exchangers
including ultrasound systems [83, 84]. In the case of liquid foods, the
application of ultrasound of 20 kHz also improved the convection heat transfer
in this case up to 25-fold in water [85]. In the case of viscous liquids such as
puree, creams or soups, ultrasound not only improved the energy transfer but
also the uniformity of the heating. Thus, an increase in energy transfer of 33
and 43% when heating tomato soup assisted with 45 and 450 W of ultrasound
(20 kHz), respectively, was observed (Figure 5).
FIGURE 5.
Evolution of the temperature during the heating of tomato soup at different
ultrasound (20 kHz) intensities: 0 (▲), 45 (◯), and 450 W (●).
Finally, the application of ultrasound in hot water to heat solid products
resulted in a faster heat transfer, reducing the time to apply pasteurization
treatments or even to cook food products and therefore getting higher quality
products [16].
Some authors have studied the improvement of heating for food cooking by using
ultrasound. One of the first studies was conducted by Pohlman et al. [86] who
evaluated the effects of ultrasound for cooking different pieces of beef. An
ultrasonic field of 22 W/cm2 was applied and compared to the traditional cooking
of beef in a convection oven up to 70°C in the center. Ultrasonic cooking
reduced the cooking time by 54% and the energy consumption of the process by
42%. In addition, samples cooked with ultrasound were cooked more uniformly and
showed higher water retention, lower cooking losses, and lower hardness. In
recent years, more studies have been conducted on this topic. More specifically,
ultrasound has been used to accelerate heat transfer in the pasteurization of
packaged sausages [87] and of ready-to-eat whole brown crab [88], to evaluate
the frying-assisted ultrasound process of meatballs [89] and for the cooking of
mortadella [90]. Even more, improvements in heat transfer have been observed at
boiling water temperatures and over atmospherically pressure. Thus, 20% and up
to 32% reduction in the cooking times were observed when boiling macaroni at
100°C or chickpeas at 120°C and 0.09 MPa, respectively, in an ultrasonic field
of 40 kHz and 25 W/kg by using a new patented ultrasound system [91, 92].
In summary, the application of ultrasound allows to reduce the heating times by
enhancing the energy transfer in liquid, viscous, and solid products and
applying more uniform thermal treatments reducing the number of cold spots.
5.4.2 FREEZING
Freezing is one of the oldest methods for food preservation. It involves
subjecting food to temperatures lower than that of the freezing point causing
the conversion of food water into ice and thereby limiting microbial growth and
chemical and enzymatic reactions. When freezing speed is slow, large crystals
with edges are formed in the extracellular liquid, causing the loss of water
from inside the cells. This leads to dehydration, cell contraction, and partial
plasmolysis; these phenomena, together with the damage caused by ice crystals
that cause injuries in cell membranes, lead to water leakage after defrosting,
producing the loss of food quality. On the other hand, quick freezing produces
small ice crystals in the intracellular and extracellular space, resulting in
less cell damage and in higher quality products [93]. Ultrasound-assisted
freezing reduces treatment time by favoring both nucleation and controlled
crystal growth [16]. These effects have been mainly attributed to acoustic
cavitation and the microstreaming generated in the liquid as well as the
microbubbles that act as nuclei of crystallization [94]. Figure 6 shows the
freezing curves of 2 cm × 2 cm cylinders of meat sausages frozen in an
ultrasound bath at −22°C applying or not ultrasound (40 kHz, 50 W). As can be
observed, application of ultrasound reduced the freezing time and even
eliminated the water-ice crystal transition phase.
FIGURE 6.
Temperature of sausages (thin lines) and media (thick lines) when applying
(continuous lines) or not ultrasound (40 kHz, 50 W/kg) when freezing.
Several studies have been carried out on the application of ultrasound during
the freezing process of foods. In most of these studies, ultrasound has been
applied using ultrasound baths with the product immersed in an aqueous medium,
e.g., panaria dough [95], potatoes [96], broccoli [97], apples [98], mushrooms
[99], and pork loin [100]. For example, Sun et al. [101] studied the influence
of ultrasound-assisted immersion freezing on the process and on the quality of
common carp (Cyprinus carpio). The application of ultrasound at 30 kHz and 175 W
reduced the freezing time of 37.2%, being this ultrasound intensity the optimal,
since below it the effect of ultrasound was undetectable and above it
overheating was observed due to the high ultrasound intensities applied. This
increase in the freezing rate resulted in an improvement in the product quality
since the cooking loss (% of loss water after cooking the product) values
determined were similar to those of fresh product: 7.9% in fresh product vs 8.3%
when ultrasound was applied.
5.4.3 THAWING
Thawing is as important as freezing in the food industry, since a large
proportion of frozen foods require thawing prior to their consumption. This
process must be carried out as quick as possible to avoid affecting the hygienic
quality of the product, but bearing in mind that the higher the speed, the worse
will be the sensory characteristics of the final product because time is
required for the cells to reabsorb the released water during freezing. As it has
been explained, the application of ultrasound would help to improve the transfer
of energy due to the cavitation and the microstreaming generated in the liquid
[96]. Some studies have been carried out in beef, pork, and codfish [102]; pork
Longissimus dorsi muscle [103]; and tuna [104]. In a study carried out by
Gambuteanu and Alexe [103], thawing assisted by ultrasound in samples of pork
Longissimus dorsi muscle was evaluated. Experiments were performed at
intensities of 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 W/cm2 in a water bath at 15°C, and they were
compared with thawing in air at 15°C and thawing by immersion on water at
15°C. The thawing rate was influenced by the intensity of ultrasound treatment:
the higher the ultrasonic intensity, the shorter the thawing time. Thus, the
thawing rates for air and water immersion were 0.16 and 0.29°C/min,
respectively, whereas, for ultrasound intensities of 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 W/cm2,
the values were 0.62, 0.73, and 1°C/min. Therefore, the thawing time of pork
samples could be reduced applying ultrasound technology. Similar conclusions
were obtained by our research group in cod fillets thawed in an ultrasound water
bath at 2°C (25 kHz, 14.7 W/kg), reducing 65% the time to achieve 0°C,
maintaining the water holding capacity and cook loss of the fresh product, and
with a better sensorial quality than the air defrosted product (Figure 7).
FIGURE 7.
Temperature of cod fillets (thin lines) and water (think lines) when applying
(continuous lines) or not ultrasound (25 kHz, 14.7 W/kg) when thawing.
5.5 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASOUND IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
In addition to the applications already described, ultrasound technology has
been evaluated and applied in the food industry to improve other processes whose
result is based mainly on mechanical effects.
5.5.1 FOAMING AND DEGASSING CAPACITY
Foam is a dispersion of gas in a liquid medium that is often formed during the
manufacture of many products, as a result of aeration or agitation of liquids,
during vaporization of liquids, or due to chemical or biological reactions
[105]. Mechanical methods are the most effective at removing unwanted foams
during food processing, compared to antifoaming chemical agents. The use of
ultrasound can be considered a mechanical method of foam removal, since it is
based on the propagation of the sound waves through the foam, without affecting
the liquid [106]. For this application, airborne transducers are mainly used
[107].
Another increasingly widespread application of ultrasound is degassing. Liquids
contain dissolved gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, or nitrogen.
Conventionally, to degas a liquid, it is boiled or subjected to vacuum, reducing
the solubility of the gases. Ultrasonic degassing has the advantage of not
substantially increasing the temperature of the liquid. In the presence of an
ultrasonic field, the gas bubbles begin to vibrate, coalesce, and grow, reaching
a sufficient size to ascend to the liquid surface, being thus removed from the
aqueous medium [16].
In a study that covers both applications, foam removal and degassing, Villamiel
et al. [108] used 1-second ultrasonic pulses (20 kHz) in milk. At 20°C with
3 minutes of treatment, they managed to reduce foam by 80% with an energy
consumption of 40 kJ/l. In order to eliminate the oxygen dissolved in milk, a
more energetic treatment was necessary (240 kJ/l).
5.5.2 FILTRATION
High-power ultrasound has been applied to promote diffusion through membranes
and porous materials. This improvement is attributed to the formation of
microstreams generated within the liquid in the presence of high-energy
ultrasonic fields. That is how it would facilitate the processes of filtration,
ultrafiltration, dialysis, and reverse osmosis [109]. During membrane
filtration, the flow progressively decays to a stationary state due to the
polarization of the concentration, and the saturation of the filter. Ultrasound
acts by increasing the flow and preventing saturation if applied during
filtration or by breaking the deposit layer of solutes or cake on the filters,
acting in this case as a cleaning method [16].
5.5.3 TEXTURE MODIFICATION
Texture plays a crucial role in influencing consumers’ liking and preference of
meat products. This sensation is influenced by various factors including muscle
type, age and cut, its water holding capacity, and the degree of maturation,
among others [110]. The application of ultrasound might help to improve meat
tenderness, thus obtaining better quality products. However, the effect of
high-power ultrasound on meat tenderization is not entirely clear, and this is
likely because there are many factors that influence its effect, such as the
characteristics of the ultrasonic field, the time of exposure, the animal
species, and the type of muscle, among others. Some authors state that those
studies in which ultrasound application had no effect would be due to the low
ultrasonic densities (0.29–1.55 W/cm2) or short treatment times (15 s) applied
[111, 112, 113]. In any case, there are systems already in the market for
tendering meat based on ultrasound [114].
In the case of meat products, ultrasound can improve cohesiveness between
different pieces of meat [109] by promoting the release of myofibrillar proteins
and gel formation. This effect is important in processes such as the production
of cooked ham or cured meat products in which an adhesive protein exudate is
required in order to act as a glue between the different parts during molding or
stuffing [110].
5.5.4 FOOD CUTTING
Most processed foods are prepared in large quantities, often in blocks or in
large sheets. For marketing and consumption, it is necessary to reduce their
size, in many cases by cutting the product. For this propose, ultrasonic probes
in the shape of a blade are used which vibrate at a certain ultrasonic frequency
longitudinally or as a piston. When it comes into contact with food, it cuts it
due to both the vibration and the sharp edge of the blade. These types of probes
have been used successfully in the cutting of fragile, heterogeneous, and sticky
products such as cream cakes, bread, pastries, biscuits, and cheese [16, 115].
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6. CONCLUSIONS
Although ultrasound is a well-known technology that is commonly used in several
fields such as medicine or in the automobile industry, its use in the food
industry is still scarce especially in the case of high-power ultrasound.
However, due to its capacity to improve mass and energy transfer phenomena—which
occur in numerous processes in the food industry—it might be very helpful for
producing safer and higher quality products than those obtained by traditional
procedures. In addition, ultrasound is considered a safe, nonpolluting, and
environmentally friendly technology, which has also contributed to attract the
interest of the food industry. Finally, the lower implementation cost—up to the
industrial scale—of some applications compared to other nonthermal technologies
such as pulsed electric fields or high hydrostatic pressures will facilitate its
industrialization in some food sectors. In any case, further research is still
necessary for some applications since many factors have to be considered when
designing equipment and applying ultrasound treatments in the food industry in
order to achieve an efficient application.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support from iNOBox (Project
number 281106) funded by the Research Council of Norway and the Department of
Innovation Research and University of the Aragon Government and European Social
Fund (ESF). L.A. gratefully acknowledges the financial support for her studies
provided by the “Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional.”
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SECTIONS
Author information
* 1.Introduction
* 2.Effects of ultrasound in food matrices mechanism of action
* 3.Factors affecting cavitation
* 4.Basic ultrasound systems used in the food industry
* 5.Applications of high-power ultrasound in the food industry
* 6.Conclusions
* Acknowledgments
References
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