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BEOTHUK
HISTORY ©

> [Note: This is a single part of what will be, by my classification, about 240
> compact tribal histories (contact to 1900). It is limited to the lower 48
> states of the U.S. but also includes those First Nations from Canada and
> Mexico that had important roles ( Huron, Assiniboine, etc.).
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> This history's content and style are representative. The normal process at
> this point is to circulate an almost finished product among a peer group for
> comment and criticism. At the end of this History you will find links to those
> Nations referred to in the History of the Beothuk.
> 
> 
> 
> Using the Internet, this can be more inclusive. Feel free to comment or
> suggest corrections via e-mail. Working together we can end some of the
> historical misinformation about Native Americans. You will find the ego at
> this end to be of standard size. Thanks for stopping by. I look forward to
> your comments... Lee Sultzman.

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Beothuk Location

The island of Newfoundland.



Population

No one really knows how many there were in 1500. Some estimates are as high as
5,000, but 2,000 is probably closer to the truth. Only 400 were left in 1768,
and by 1829 they were extinct. It would seem possible, however, that small
groups of Beothuk crossed over into Labrador and merged with the Montagnais or
Naskapi.



Names

Alternate spellings:

> Beathunk, Beothuck, and Betoukuag. Also called: Macquajeet (Mequaegit)
> (Micmac), Red Indians, Skraelling (Norse), and Ulno (Ulnobah) (Abenaki)

Language

Beothuk Isolate. Their language was unique, but it appears it may be distantly
related to the Algonquin dialect spoken by the Naskapi and Montagnais in Quebec
and Labrador.



Culture

For the most part the Beothuk kept to themselves and avoided contact with
Europeans, so very little is known about them. Traditional enemies were the
Micmac and Labrador Eskimo, but the Beothuk seemed to have always maintained
friendly relations with the Montagnais and Naskapi in Quebec ...sometimes
intermarrying with them.



The growing-season in Newfoundland is much too short for maize agriculture, and
as a result, the Beothuk did not farm. They were semi-nomadic hunter/gatherers
organized into small independent bands of extended families. Before the arrival
of the Europeans, most Beothuk bands moved seasonally between the coast during
summer and interior in the winter, but several groups are known to have remained
at coastal villages year-around and sent hunting parties a short distance inland
during the colder months.



Unlike the Labrador mainland to the north, Newfoundland did not have a variety
of large land animals for use as food sources by its native population. About
all that was available were Caribou. There were large herds, but their movements
were not always reliable. The coastline, however, was a different story, and it
was one of the world's richest with enormous quantities of fish, seals, and and
other seafood for the taking. For this reason, the native population of
Newfoundland before contact was always concentrated on the coastline and avoided
the harsh climate of the interior. The Beothuk took advantage of this coastal
bounty and were skilled canoeists who speared seals with harpoons, fished for
salmon, and collected shellfish. This ended after the European and Micmac
occupation of the coastal areas. The Beothuk retreated into the interior with
its limited resources. Unlike other Native Americans, their subsequent decline
was due more to starvation than disease and warfare.

One thing that is known about the Beothuk was their love of the color red. While
the use of red ocre was common among Native Americans, no other tribe used it as
extensively as the Beothuk. They literally covered everything - their bodies,
faces, hair, clothing, personal possessions, and tools - with a red paint made
from powdered ochre mixed with either fish oil or animal grease. It was also
employed in burials. The reasons are unknown, but speculation has ranged from
their religion (about which we know very little) to protection from insects. The
practice was so excessive, even the Micmac referred to them as the Red Indians,
and it is believed the term "redskin" used for Native Americans probably
originated from early contacts between European fishermen and Beothuk. In most
other ways, the Beothuk were similar to neighboring tribes in the region. During
the winter, they wore caribou-skin mantles with moccasins, leggings, mittens,
and arm-coverings. Despite their heavy reliance on fish and seafood, they were
quite comfortable in the woods and used birch bark for their cooking vessels and
wigwams. They built several types of canoes, including a humped-back style
similar to the Micmac. Many of these were remarkably seaworthy and capable of
making long trips across open water.

Beothuk housing varied a great deal and seems to have evolved over the years.
Initially, most used either a conical wigwam built around a framework of
saplings and covered with sheets of birch bark. There was also a larger
square-shaped style of similar construction used in summer villages. By 1700 the
Beothuk were building larger structures: a circular wigwam (20' diameter) and an
oval longhouse (30' in length). A century later, Beothuk along the Exploits
River favored log structures which resembled some of the houses the whites were
building. Another change to the the Beothuk lifestyle caused by the European
presence was the substitution of metal for many of their traditional materials.
This may sound strange to some, since the Beothuk were renown for avoiding
contact with whites. They did not, however, avoid stealing from them. The
Beothuk stole so much metal from British and French settlers, they were one of
the few native peoples who never had to trade with Europeans to get what they
needed. Archeological digs at Beothuk campsites often produce hundreds of old
nails (used to make arrowheads) which were obviously "borrowed" from the white
men who took over their homeland.



History

People have lived in Newfoundland for at least 9,000 years, but it is unlikely
the first residents were Beothuk. Ice age hunters followed the retreating
glaciers into the area and remained as the Maritime Archaic Culture until about
3,200 years ago. They were replaced by paleo-eskimos - the Groswater and then
later the Dorset Cultures. The Beothuk are believed to have first occupied the
coastal areas of Newfoundland sometime around 200 A.D. and shared the area with
the Dorset Eskimo during the next 400 years. After 600 A.D. there were only
Beothuk living in Newfoundland. Towards the end of the 10th century, the Vikings
(Norse) reached North America and established one of their settlements at L'Anse
aux Meadows at Epaves Bay (near Cape Bauld on the northern end of Newfoundland).
Exactly how far south the Vikings explored along the coast is unknown, but it is
certain the people they encountered there, who they called Skraelings, were
Beothuk. During the time they remained on Newfoundland, the Vikings traded with
the Beothuk and occasionally fought with them, the most notable incident being a
battle over a Viking cow.

This contact occurred during a period of unusually warm weather. The climate
turned much colder during the 11th century, and the Vikings abandoned their
North American settlements never to return. The next known contact between
Beothuk and Europeans came 500 years later with the voyage of Giovanni Cabato
(John Cabot), a Venetian navigator sailing for Henry VII of England. Cabot
visited both Labrador and Newfoundland in 1497 and returned to England with
tales of the seas in the area teaming with fish. Unlike some stories about the
New World, this one was true. Instantly, European fishing boats (Portuguese,
Basque, Spanish) began making trips to the Grand Banks every summer. If the
fishermen had stuck to catching fish, perhaps things would have been different.
Instead, some took to catching Beothuk . In 1501 the Portuguese explorer Gaspar
Corte-Real returned from Newfoundland with 50 Beothuk "man slaves" captured
during his expedition, and in 1507 Norman fisherman brought another seven
Beothuk prisoners to France.

By the time the Portuguese and English fisherman started coming ashore in 1519
to dry their catch, the Beothuk had learned from painful experience to avoid
these strange pale-skinned people. The fishing was phenomenal, and the number of
ship grew every year. By 1578 over 400 European fishing boats were gathering
every summer off the coast of Newfoundland and at least 50 rudimentary houses
had been built as summer residences for the fishermen. No one was willing to
stay over for the winter, so these were abandoned in the fall when the fishing
fleet returned to Europe. What developed was a pattern where the Beothuk would
avoid Europeans while they were there in the summer and then pilfer their
abandoned dwellings when they left. Eventually, familiarity, curiosity, and a
touch of greed led to constant theft while the Europeans were actually there.
Within a few years, contact with the Beothuk became commonplace but it was not
the kind that builds friendship and trust. Beothuk stole anything the Europeans
didn't have nailed down, and the fishermen treated the Beothuk with contempt,
distrust, and even hatred.

Meanwhile, the British decided, based on Cabot's voyage in 1497, that
Newfoundland belonged to them. In 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, with a grant from
Queen Elizabeth I, attempted to establish a colony in North America. This effort
was a failure, but in the process, he laid formal claim to Newfoundland and the
Canadian Maritimes. This takeover met surprisingly little protest from the other
Europeans, probably because they hoped the British would provide order and
protection for the fishing fleet from Turkish pirates (yes, Turkish is correct).
In addition, the British at first did not attempt any settlement to support
their claim. In fact, settlement in Newfoundland was officially discouraged by
the British Crown in the interest of the Merchant Adventurers of southwest
England who wanted exclusive rights to the offshore fishing. The only objection
(and it proved to be important) came from France, who also claimed Newfoundland
as a result of Jacques Cartier's explorations in 1535.

While other Europeans continued to fish the area as before, the British made
their first attempt at permanent settlement in 1610 when John Guy established
himself at Conception Bay on the island's southeast corner. Guy actually managed
to meet some Beothuk and, after overcoming their initial suspicions (which were
considerable), started trading with them. Their reaction to getting European
goods by trade rather than theft seems to have been absolute joy, and Guy was
able to arrange a spot for a future meeting and trade to begin when the next
British ship arrived. Unfortunately, Guy failed to inform the ship's captain of
his arrangement, and when the ship finally arrived, it was surrounded by
hundreds of Beothuk eager to trade. The captain fired his cannon at them, and
the Beothuk disappeared. Guy was never able to regain their trust, and his
settlement gradually died. However, St. John's was founded in 1613, followed by
an abortive attempt by John Calvert (Lord Baltimore) to start a colony for
English Catholics in 1623.

Actually, the first permanent newcomers to seriously affect the Beothuk were
Native American, not European. For as long as they can remember, the Micmac from
Cape Breton had been visiting Newfoundland during the summer to take advantage
of the fishing. Their relations with the "Red Indians" had almost always been
friendly, but in 1613 a French fisherman shot at an Beothuk who was trying to
rob him. The Beothuk responded with an uprising which killed 37 French
fishermen, and to protect themselves, the French began to encourage their Micmac
allies to settle permanently in southern Newfoundland. As Micmac settlement
spread along the southern coast of Newfoundland, competition with the Beothuk
for resources led to fighting. The French provided the Micmac with firearms to
defend both themselves and French fishermen, and it was no contest. The Beothuk
were driven inland away from their usual food sources on the coast. Although the
French during this period have been accused of paying bounties to the Micmac for
Beothuk heads and scalps, no solid evidence has yet been found proving they
actually did this. The Micmac also deny they were paid to kill Beothuk. Whatever
the cause, the Beothuk were displaced into the interior.

At the same time the Micmac were blocking the Beothuk access to the southern
coast, a string of new British settlements was beginning to extend the eastern
coast from St. John's forcing the Beothuk inland in that area. About the only
advantage in what was happening to the Beothuk was, because of their avoidance
of Europeans, they apparently were able to avoid many of the epidemics which
were decimating the other tribes in the region. Meanwhile, competition between
France and Great Britain over the Beothuk homeland with its rich fishing grounds
was becoming intense. The French attacked several British settlements during
1627-28, but the British rebuilt. During the 1650s the French countered the
British presence with a permanent settlement of Basque fishermen at Placentia.
The Basque rebelled in 1660 and murdered the French governor, but the French
regained control and in 1662 stationed its first soldiers to Newfoundland. The
British held on to St. John's despite the growing French threat and its capture
by the Dutch in 1665. After peace with Holland, the British strengthened their
forts and in 1673 repulsed another Dutch attack and a raid by four pirate ships.

After the outbreak of the King William's War (1687-96) between them, both the
French and British tried to expel each other from Newfoundland. The Beothuk, by
this time, had moved mostly into the interior and may not have even been aware
of the struggle going on for their homeland. Although they were hostile to all
intruders, French, British, or Micmac, they were not a factor in the war. During
the first years of the war, the French made assaults almost every year against
the small. isolated British settlements. The British countered with a major
naval attack on Placentia but failed to destroy the French forts defending it.
The fighting continued until the fall of 1696 when Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
brought 120 French regulars, 40 Abenaki warriors, and some French Canadians to
Newfoundland. Combined with the Placentia garrison, his force totaled more than
400, and he was able to destroy all of the British settlements along the south
shore and capture St. John's. The British settlers were deported, but the Treaty
of Ryswick (1697) restored St. John's to Britain. 1,500 British troops
reoccupied St. John's that summer and began construction of Fort William which
was completed by 1700.

The Queen Anne's War (1701-13) began the following year, and France and Britain
renewed their attacks on each other's settlements, but this time on a greater
scale than during the previous conflict. Reinforced by Abenaki and Micmac
warriors, the French succeeded in destroying most of the British settlements
during 1704-05 but failed to capture Fort William during a five-week siege. A
second effort to take the fort in 1709 was successful, but their success was
short-lived. British troops arrived in Newfoundland a year later and rebuilt
Fort William. A British naval attack on Placentia failed in 1712, but the Treaty
of Utrecht (1713) gave Great Britain control of Newfoundland and the Canadian
Maritimes. The French population and garrison at Placentia left Newfoundland and
moved across the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Cape Breton (Nova Scotia) where they
began construction of an enormous new fortress at Louisbourgh. Fighting during
the King George's War (1744-48) and the French and Indian War (1755-63) centered
around the fortification at Louisbourgh. Little happened in Newfoundland during
these conflicts except for a brief invasion by 800 French troops in 1762. The
British, however, reacted immediately and recaptured the island.

Other than than the brief mention of John Guy's encounter with the Beothuk in
1612, there was almost no mention of the Beothuk during the next 150 years.
Actually, this is not really surprising there was very little European
settlement in Newfoundland during this time. Fighting between the French and
British, coupled with restrictive settlement policies of the British government,
served to keep this to a minimum. What little there was was restricted to the
coastline, and few Europeans dared to venture into the interior because of
Beothuk hostility. Contacts were few and usually limited to the Beothuk on
occasion slipping silently into European settlements to steal metal or other
goods. After the period of wars between France and Britain for North America
ended, British settlement spread north along the eastern coast cutting off what
remained of Beothuk access to the sea. The worst enemy of the Beothuk was
starvation. By 1768 they were fewer than 400 and mostly confined to the Exploits
River Valley on the north side of Newfoundland. The Beothuk pattern of avoiding
contact and theft continued. In reaction, many British settlers began shooting
Beothuk on sight like they were some kind of wolf or other dangerous predator.
There was no actual warfare, but several punitive expeditions were made into the
interior to punish thefts.

During 1810 the British government issued an official proclamation of protection
for the Beothuk and began attempts to make contact with them. After centuries of
distrust and mistreatment, some of these efforts were more like war than
communication. British settlers at Twillingate were still shooting Beothuk on
site in 1817, when an expedition led by Lt. Buchan finally made contact. To gain
their trust, Buchan detailed two of his men to stay overnight at the Beothuk
camp while two Beothuk warriors slept with his party. In the morning, his
Beothuk departed suddenly. Later, Buchan found the bodies of his two men,
beheaded and mutilated. Between 1819 and 1823, there were several other
encounters with Beothuk with better results, but often fighting. In the process,
several prisoners were taken of whom the better-known ones were Demasduit (Mary
March) and Nancy Shanawdithit. A careful search of Newfoundland during 1827 was
unable to locate a single Beothuk, but it is likely the last remnants crossed
over to the mainland in Labrador and were absorbed by the Montagnais or Naskapi.
Otherwise the Beothuk are extinct. The last known Beothuk, Nancy Shanawhdit,
died of tuberculosis in 1829.







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First Nations referred to in this Beothuk History:

> Abenaki
> Micmac

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Comments concerning this History would be appreciated. Direct same to Lee
Sultzman.



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