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C&C 3 CRACK DOWNLOAD

22-05-202122.08.2017 admin

Name :Command And Conquer 4 : Tiberian Twilight |


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Behold disciples of Nod, for the end is soon upon us. Electronic Arts’
award-winning and best-selling Tiberium saga is coming to a powerful conclusion
with Command & Conquer 4 Tiberian Twilight, which will introduce a multitude of
innovations to the classic fast and fluid

Command & Conquer gameplay, while retaining the core compulsions that fans have
come to love over the series’ history.



It is the year 2062 and humanity is at the brink of extinction. Tiberium, the
mysterious, alien crystalline structure that has infested Earth for decades and
served as the primary reason for years of relentless conflict between the Global
Defense Initiative (GDI) and the Brotherhood of Nod, is close to rendering the
planet uninhabitable. Mankind is on the verge of extinction when Kane, Nod’s
prophetic leader, emerges from seclusion to deliver GDI the message that he has
developed a system that could control Tiberium and harness its power. But he
cannot build this “Tiberium Control Network” without GDI’s cooperation. Thus,
the two opposing factions – GDI and Nod – inevitably find themselves in
desperation for the same cause: to stop Tiberium from extinguishing mankind.

After 15 years, the network is nearly complete, Tiberium is under strict control
and our revitalized, newly terraformed planet is on the cusp of a new age of
prosperity and progress. It is then that the world’s citizens begin to seriously
ponder why Kane chose to help, and what will he want in return. These questions
and more lead to the dramatic final act of the Tiberium saga.

With a multitude of innovative new features to the fast and fluid C&C gameplay,
Command & Conquer 4 Tiberian Twilight offers players an entirely new way to play
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modes that is constantly updated in a real-time online profile, a 3-class system
for each of the two factions, co-operative play, and a 5v5 objective-based
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Conquer 4 Tiberian Twilight unlike any other C&C experience.

 * The Epic Conclusion of the Saga – Command & Conquer 4 Tiberian Twilight
   brings the 15-year Tiberium saga to a powerful and epic conclusion, told
   through grittier and darker live action cinematics, the return of Nod’s
   enigmatic leader Kane (Joe Kucan) and all the answers on the fate of Earth,
   GDI, Tiberium, Nod and most of all, Kane himself.
 * First Class-based C&C – Play as Offense, Defense or Support classes from GDI
   and Nod. Each class is unique, offering players different play styles, giving
   you tons of strategic options and coming with its own set of units designed
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 * Mobile bases!– The Crawler is your giant, new, all-in-one mobile base that
   you control on the battlefield to produce new units, structures, powers and
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   Build units and store them in your hull as you move around the map and
   surprise your enemy with a sudden fury of units!
 * Persistent Player Progression – Every unit you destroy awards you with
   experience points. Level up and spend your experience points on new units,
   powers and upgrades that give you more strategic options to choose from. Your
   progression is stored in your online profile that you can access from any PC
   with C&C 4 installed.
 * 5v5 Multiplayer – With its objective-based 5v5 multiplayer, Command & Conquer
   4 Tiberian Twilight brings a new, social, real-time-strategy experience to
   your PC. Choose your individual classes and play together as a team to
   conquer your enemy. The all-new party system lets you move with your party of
   friends from one online battle to the next.

Minimum System Requirements

 * OS: Windows XP SP3/Vista SP1/Windows 7
 * Processor: Intel Core 2 DUO / AMD 64 X2
 * Memory: 1 Gb
 * Hard Drive: 10 Gb free
 * Video Memory: 256 Mb
 * Video Card: NVIDIA GeForce 6800* / ATI Radeon X1600*
 * Sound Card: DirectX Compatible
 * DirectX: 9.0c
 * Keyboard
 * Mouse
 * DVD Rom Drive

Recommended System Requirements

 * OS: Windows XP SP3/Vista SP1/Windows 7
 * Processor: Intel Core 2 DUO E6600 (2.4 GHz) / AMD Athlon 64 X2 5400+
 * Memory: 3 Gb
 * Hard Drive: 10 Gb free
 * Video Card: NVIDIA GeForce 7900 GTX* / ATI Radeon X1900*
 * Sound Card: DirectX Compatible
 * DirectX: 9.0c or 10
 * Keyboard
 * Mouse
 * DVD Rom Drive

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RELATED POSTS

C
The C Programming Language[1] (often referred to as K&R), the seminal book on C
ParadigmImperative (procedural), structuredDesigned byDennis
RitchieDeveloperDennis Ritchie & Bell Labs (creators); ANSI X3J11 (ANSI C);
ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14 (ISO C)First appeared1972; 47 years ago[2]Stable
releaseTyping disciplineStatic, weak, manifest, nominalOSCross-platformFilename
extensions.c, .hMajor implementationsK&R, GCC, Clang, Intel C,Microsoft Visual
C++, Watcom CDialectsCyclone, Unified Parallel C, Split-C, Cilk, C*Influenced
byB (BCPL, CPL), ALGOL 68,[3]Assembly, PL/I, FORTRANInfluencedNumerous: AMPL,
AWK, csh, C++, C--, C#, Objective-C, D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Julia, Limbo, LPC,
Perl, PHP, Pike, Processing, Python, Ring,[4]Rust, Seed7, Vala, Verilog
(HDL),[5]Nim
 * C Programming at Wikibooks

C (/siː/, as in the letter c) is a general-purpose, procedural computer
programming language supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope,
and recursion, while a static type system prevents unintended operations. By
design, C provides constructs that map efficiently to typical machine
instructions and has found lasting use in applications previously coded in
assembly language. Such applications include operating systems and various
application software for computers, from supercomputers to embedded systems.

C was originally developed at Bell Labs by Dennis Ritchie between 1972 and 1973
to make utilities running on Unix. Later, it was applied to re-implementing the
kernel of the Unix operating system.[6] During the 1980s, C gradually gained
popularity. Nowadays, it is one of the most widely used programming
languages,[7][8] with C compilers from various vendors available for the
majority of existing computer architectures and operating systems. C has been
standardized by the ANSI since 1989 (see ANSI C) and by the International
Organization for Standardization.

C is an imperativeprocedural language. It was designed to be compiled using a
relatively straightforward compiler to provide low-level access to memory and
language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, all with
minimal runtime support. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was
designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards-compliant C
program written with portability in mind can be compiled for a wide variety of
computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code.
The language is available on various platforms, from embedded microcontrollers
to supercomputers.

 * 1Overview
 * 2History
 * 3Syntax
 * 5Data types
 * 7Libraries


OVERVIEW[EDIT]

Dennis Ritchie (right), the inventor of the C programming language, with Ken
Thompson

Like most procedural languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for
structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion. Its
static type system prevents unintended operations. In C, all executable code is
contained within subroutines (also called 'functions', though not strictly in
the sense of functional programming). Function parameters are always passed by
value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values.
C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement
terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements.

The C language also exhibits the following characteristics:

 * There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of control
   flow primitives: if/else, for, do/while, while, and switch. User-defined
   names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil.
 * There are a large number of arithmetic, bitwise and logic operators: +, +=,
   ++, &, ||, etc.
 * More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement.
 * Function return values can be ignored when not needed.
 * Typing is static, but weakly enforced; all data has a type, but implicit
   conversions are possible.
 * Declarationsyntax mimics usage context. C has no 'define' keyword; instead, a
   statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There
   is no 'function' keyword; instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses
   of an argument list.
 * User-defined (typedef) and compound types are possible.
   * Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to
     be accessed and assigned as a unit.
   * Union is a structure with overlapping members; only the last member stored
     is valid.
   * Array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer
     arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects: they cannot
     be assigned or compared using single built-in operators. There is no
     'array' keyword in use or definition; instead, square brackets indicate
     arrays syntactically, for example month[11].
   * Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword. They are freely
     interconvertible with integers.
   * Strings are not a distinct data type, but are conventionally implemented as
     null-terminated character arrays.
 * Low-level access to computer memory is possible by converting machine
   addresses to typed pointers.
 * Procedures (subroutines not returning values) are a special case of function,
   with an untyped return type void.
 * Functions may not be defined within the lexical scope of other functions.
 * Function and data pointers permit ad hocrun-time polymorphism.
 * A preprocessor performs macro definition, source code file inclusion, and
   conditional compilation.
 * There is a basic form of modularity: files can be compiled separately and
   linked together, with control over which functions and data objects are
   visible to other files via static and extern attributes.
 * Complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical
   functions are consistently delegated to library routines.

While C does not include certain features found in other languages (such as
object orientation and garbage collection), these can be implemented or
emulated, often through the use of external libraries (e.g., the GLib Object
System or the Boehm garbage collector).


RELATIONS TO OTHER LANGUAGES[EDIT]

Many later languages have borrowed directly or indirectly from C, including C++,
C#, Unix's C shell, D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Objective-C, Perl, PHP,
Python, Rust, Swift, Verilog and SystemVerilog (hardware description
languages).[5] These languages have drawn many of their control structures and
other basic features from C. Most of them (Python being a dramatic exception)
also express highly similar syntax to C, and they tend to combine the
recognizable expression and statement syntax of C with underlying type systems,
data models, and semantics that can be radically different.


HISTORY[EDIT]


EARLY DEVELOPMENTS[EDIT]

YearC Standard[9]1972Birth1978K&R C1989/1990ANSI C and ISO
C1999C992011C112017/2018C18

The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system,
originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Dennis Ritchie and Ken
Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually, they decided
to port the operating system to a PDP-11. The original PDP-11 version of Unix
was also developed in assembly language.[10]

Thompson desired a programming language to make utilities for the new platform.
At first, he tried to make a Fortran compiler, but soon gave up the idea.
Instead, he created a cut-down version of the recently developed BCPLsystems
programming language. The official description of BCPL was not available at the
time,[11] and Thompson modified the syntax to be less wordy, producing the
similar but somewhat simpler B.[10] However, few utilities were ultimately
written in B because it was too slow, and B could not take advantage of PDP-11
features such as byte addressability.

In 1972, Ritchie started to improve B, which resulted in creating a new language
C.[12] The C compiler and some utilities made with it were included in Version 2
Unix.[13]

At Version 4 Unix released at Nov. 1973, the Unixkernel was extensively
re-implemented by C.[10] By this time, the C language had acquired some powerful
features such as struct types.

Unix was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language
other than assembly. Earlier instances include the Multics system (which was
written in PL/I) and Master Control Program (MCP) for the Burroughs B5000 (which
was written in ALGOL) in 1961. In around 1977, Ritchie and Stephen C. Johnson
made further changes to the language to facilitate portability of the Unix
operating system. Johnson's Portable C Compiler served as the basis for several
implementations of C on new platforms.[12]


K&R C[EDIT]

The cover of the book The C Programming Language, first edition, by Brian
Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C
Programming Language.[1] This book, known to C programmers as K&R, served for
many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that
it describes is commonly referred to as 'K&R C'. The second edition of the
book[14] covers the later ANSI C standard, described below.

K&R introduced several language features:

 * Standard I/O library
 * long int data type
 * unsigned int data type
 * Compound assignment operators of the form =op (such as =-) were changed to
   the form op= (that is, -=) to remove the semantic ambiguity created by
   constructs such as i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 (decrement i
   by 10) instead of the possibly intended i = -10 (let i be -10).

Even after the publication of the 1989 ANSI standard, for many years K&R C was
still considered the 'lowest common denominator' to which C programmers
restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older
compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be
legal Standard C as well.

In early versions of C, only functions that return types other than int must be
declared if used before the function definition; functions used without prior
declaration were presumed to return type int.

For example:

The int type specifiers which are commented out could be omitted in K&R C, but
are required in later standards.

Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function
arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some
compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the
wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used
different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint
utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of
function use across multiple source files.

In the years following the publication of K&R C, several features were added to
the language, supported by compilers from AT&T (in particular PCC[15]) and some
other vendors. These included:

 * void functions (i.e., functions with no return value)
 * functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
 * assignment for struct data types

The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library,
together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix
compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of
standardization.


ANSI C AND ISO C[EDIT]

During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide
variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the
IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.

In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee,
X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. X3J11 based the C standard on
the Unix implementation; however, the non-portable portion of the Unix C library
was handed off to the IEEEworking group 1003 to become the basis for the 1988
POSIX standard. In 1989, the C standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989
'Programming Language C'. This version of the language is often referred to as
ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.

In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which
is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms 'C89' and 'C90' refer to the same
programming language.

ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard
independently, but defers to the international C standard, maintained by the
working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14. National adoption of an update to the
international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.

One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of
K&R C, incorporating many of the subsequently introduced unofficial features.
The standards committee also included several additional features such as
function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for
international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements.
Although the syntax for parameter declarations was augmented to include the
style used in C++, the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for
compatibility with existing source code.

C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written today is
based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any
hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a
conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such
precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a
particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries,
such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific
attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.

In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R
C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into
Standard and K&R sections to prevent the use on a K&R C-based compiler of
features available only in Standard C.

After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification
remained relatively static for several years. In 1995, Normative Amendment 1 to
the 1990 C standard (ISO/IEC 9899/AMD1:1995, known informally as C95) was
published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for
international character sets.[16]


C99[EDIT]

The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication
of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as 'C99'. It has
since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda.[17]

C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new
data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex
numbers), variable-length arrays and flexible array members, improved support
for IEEE 754 floating point, support for variadic macros (macros of variable
arity), and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++.
Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.

C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some
ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int
implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value
199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Solaris Studio, and
other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99. The C
compiler in Microsoft Visual C++, however, implements the C89 standard and those
parts of C99 that are required for compatibility with C++11.[18]


C11[EDIT]

In 2007, work began on another revision of the C standard, informally called
'C1X' until its official publication on 2011-12-08. The C standards committee
adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that had not been
tested by existing implementations.

The C11 standard adds numerous new features to C and the library, including type
generic macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic
operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked functions. It also makes some
portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with
C++. The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined as 201112L to indicate that
C11 support is available.


C18[EDIT]

Published in June 2018, C18 is the current standard for the C programming
language. It introduces no new language features, only technical corrections and
clarifications to defects in C11. The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined
as 201710L.


EMBEDDED C[EDIT]

Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C
language in order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic,
multiple distinct memory banks, and basic I/O operations.

In 2008, the C Standards Committee published a technical report extending the C
language[19] to address these issues by providing a common standard for all
implementations to adhere to. It includes a number of features not available in
normal C, such as fixed-point arithmetic, named address spaces, and basic I/O
hardware addressing.


SYNTAX[EDIT]

C has a formal grammar specified by the C standard.[20] Line endings are
generally not significant in C; however, line boundaries do have significance
during the preprocessing phase. Comments may appear either between the
delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the end of the line.
Comments delimited by /* and */ do not nest, and these sequences of characters
are not interpreted as comment delimiters if they appear inside string or
character literals.[21]

C source files contain declarations and function definitions. Function
definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either
define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types
to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type
followed by the variable name. Keywords such as char and int specify built-in
types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes called 'curly
brackets') to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement
for control structures.

As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common
statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be
evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation,
functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the
normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow
statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported
by if(-else) conditional execution and by do-while, while, and for iterative
execution (looping). The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and
reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted. break and
continue can be used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement or skip to
its reinitialization. There is also a non-structured goto statement which
branches directly to the designated label within the function. switch selects a
case to be executed based on the value of an integer expression.

Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators and may contain function
calls. The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators
are evaluated is unspecified. The evaluations may even be interleaved. However,
all side effects (including storage to variables) will occur before the next
'sequence point'; sequence points include the end of each expression statement,
and the entry to and return from each function call. Sequence points also occur
during evaluation of expressions containing certain operators (&&, ||, ?: and
the comma operator). This permits a high degree of object code optimization by
the compiler, but requires C programmers to take more care to obtain reliable
results than is needed for other programming languages.

Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of The C Programming Language: 'C,
like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong
precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better.'[22] The C standard did
not attempt to correct many of these blemishes, because of the impact of such
changes on already existing software.


CHARACTER SET[EDIT]

The basic C source character set includes the following characters:

 * Lowercase and uppercase letters of ISO Basic Latin Alphabet: a–zA–Z
 * Decimal digits: 0–9
 * Graphic characters: ! ' # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? [ ] ^ _ { | } ~
 * Whitespace characters: space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, form feed,
   newline

Newline indicates the end of a text line; it need not correspond to an actual
single character, although for convenience C treats it as one.

Additional multi-byte encoded characters may be used in string literals, but
they are not entirely portable. The latest C standard (C11) allows
multi-national Unicode characters to be embedded portably within C source text
by using uXXXX or UXXXXXXXX encoding (where the X denotes a hexadecimal
character), although this feature is not yet widely implemented.

The basic C execution character set contains the same characters, along with
representations for alert, backspace, and carriage return. Run-time support for
extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard.


RESERVED WORDS[EDIT]

C89 has 32 reserved words, also known as keywords, which are the words that
cannot be used for any purposes other than those for which they are predefined:

autobreakcasecharconstcontinuedefaultdodoubleelseenumexternfloatforgotoifintlongregisterreturnshortsignedsizeofstaticstructswitchtypedefunionunsignedvoidvolatilewhile

C99 reserved five more words:

C11 reserved seven more words:[23]

_Alignas_Alignof_Atomic_Generic_Noreturn_Static_assert_Thread_local

Most of the recently reserved words begin with an underscore followed by a
capital letter, because identifiers of that form were previously reserved by the
C standard for use only by implementations. Since existing program source code
should not have been using these identifiers, it would not be affected when C
implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language.
Some standard headers do define more convenient synonyms for underscored
identifiers. The language previously included a reserved word called entry, but
this was seldom implemented, and has now been removed as a reserved word.[24]


OPERATORS[EDIT]

C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used within an expression
to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C
has operators for:

 * arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %
 * assignment: =
 * augmented assignment: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, &=, |=, ^=, <<=, >>=
 * bitwise logic: ~, &, |, ^
 * bitwise shifts: <<, >>
 * boolean logic: !, &&, ||
 * conditional evaluation: ? :
 * equality testing: , !=
 * calling functions: ( )
 * increment and decrement: ++, --
 * member selection: ., ->
 * object size: sizeof
 * order relations: <, <=, >, >=
 * reference and dereference: &, *, [ ]
 * sequencing: ,
 * subexpression grouping: ( )
 * type conversion: (typename)

C uses the operator = (used in mathematics to express equality) to indicate
assignment, following the precedent of Fortran and PL/I, but unlike ALGOL and
its derivatives. C uses the operator to test for equality. The similarity
between these two operators (assignment and equality) may result in the
accidental use of one in place of the other, and in many cases, the mistake does
not produce an error message (although some compilers produce warnings). For
example, the conditional expression if(ab+1) might mistakenly be written as
if(a=b+1), which will be evaluated as true if a is not zero after the
assignment.[25]

The C operator precedence is not always intuitive. For example, the operator
binds more tightly than (is executed prior to) the operators & (bitwise AND) and
| (bitwise OR) in expressions such as x & 1 0, which must be written as (x & 1)
0 if that is the coder's intent.[26]


'HELLO, WORLD' EXAMPLE[EDIT]

The 'hello, world' example, which appeared in the first edition of K&R, has
become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks,
regardless of programming language. The program prints 'hello, world' to the
standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display.

The original version was:[27]

A standard-conforming 'hello, world' program is:[a]

The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by
#include. This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of
the stdio.h standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and
output functions such as printf and scanf. The angle brackets surrounding
stdio.h indicate that stdio.h is located using a search strategy that prefers
headers provided with the compiler to other headers having the same name, as
opposed to double quotes which typically include local or project-specific
header files.

The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined. The main
function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls
the main function to begin program execution. The type specifier int indicates
that the value that is returned to the invoker (in this case the run-time
environment) as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer. The
keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no
arguments.[b]

The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main
function.

The next line calls (diverts execution to) a function named printf, which in
this case is supplied from a system library. In this call, the printf function
is passed (provided with) a single argument, the address of the first character
in the string literal'hello, worldn'. The string literal is an unnamed array
with elements of type char, set up automatically by the compiler with a final
0-valued character to mark the end of the array (printf needs to know this). The
n is an escape sequence that C translates to a newline character, which on
output signifies the end of the current line. The return value of the printf
function is of type int, but it is silently discarded since it is not used. (A
more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the
printf function succeeded.) The semicolon ; terminates the statement.

The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function.
According to the C99 specification and newer, the main function, unlike any
other function, will implicitly return a value of 0 upon reaching the } that
terminates the function. (Formerly an explicit return 0; statement was
required.) This is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating
successful execution.[28]


DATA TYPES[EDIT]

The type system in C is static and weakly typed, which makes it similar to the
type system of ALGOL descendants such as Pascal.[29] There are built-in types
for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers,
and enumerated types (enum). Integer type char is often used for single-byte
characters. C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including
arrays, pointers, records (struct), and unions (union).

C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type
system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of
most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways,
either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to
another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a
data object in some other way.

Some find C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for function
pointers. (Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling
their use: 'declaration reflects use'.)[30]


CANTER FE71 C/C 3.9L DSL MT (4 WHEELER)

C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but
can sometimes produce unexpected results. For example, a comparison of signed
and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value
to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is
negative.


POINTERS[EDIT]

C supports the use of pointers, a type of reference that records the address or
location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to
access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to
function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic.
The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address
(perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field), but since a pointer's type
includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be
type-checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the
size of the pointed-to data type. Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text
strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters.
Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers. Many data types, such as
trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked
together using pointers. Pointers to functions are useful for passing functions
as arguments to higher-order functions (such as qsort or bsearch) or as
callbacks to be invoked by event handlers.[28]

A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a
null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault. Null
pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no 'next' pointer
in the final node of a linked list, or as an error indication from functions
returning pointers. In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for
assigning to a pointer variable, a null pointer constant can be written as 0,
with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, or as the NULL macro defined
by several standard headers. In conditional contexts, null pointer values
evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true.

Void pointers (void *) point to objects of unspecified type, and can therefore
be used as 'generic' data pointers. Since the size and type of the pointed-to
object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer
arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts
implicitly are) converted to and from any other object pointer type.[28]

Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically
unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location,
which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers point to
safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer
arithmetic; the objects they point to may continue to be used after deallocation
(dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild
pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union,
or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing
manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers
typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming
languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types.


ARRAYS[EDIT]

Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile
time. (The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length
arrays.) However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of
arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and
treat it as an array. C's unification of arrays and pointers means that declared
arrays and these dynamically allocated simulated arrays are virtually
interchangeable.

Since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are
typically not checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers
may provide bounds checking as an option.[31][32] Array bounds violations are
therefore possible and rather common in carelessly written code, and can lead to
various repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, corruption of data,
buffer overruns, and run-time exceptions. If bounds checking is desired, it must
be done manually.

C does not have a special provision for declaring multi-dimensional arrays, but
rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays,
which effectively accomplishes the same thing. The index values of the resulting
'multi-dimensional array' can be thought of as increasing in row-major order.

Multi-dimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from
applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well
suited to this particular task. However, since arrays are passed merely as
pointers, the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly
passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of
arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing. (A workaround for this is to
allocate the array with an additional 'row vector' of pointers to the columns.)

C99 introduced 'variable-length arrays' which address some, but not all, of the
issues with ordinary C arrays.


ARRAY–POINTER INTERCHANGEABILITY[EDIT]

The subscript notation x[i] (where x designates a pointer) is syntactic sugar
for *(x+i).[33] Taking advantage of the compiler's knowledge of the pointer
type, the address that x + i points to is not the base address (pointed to by x)
incremented by i bytes, but rather is defined to be the base address incremented
by i multiplied by the size of an element that x points to. Thus, x[i]
designates the i+1th element of the array.

Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is as operand of
sizeof), the name of an array is automatically converted to a pointer to the
array's first element. This implies that an array is never copied as a whole
when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its
first element is passed. Therefore, although function calls in C use
pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference.

The size of an element can be determined by applying the operator sizeof to any
dereferenced element of x, as in n = sizeof *x or n = sizeof x[0], and the
number of elements in a declared array A can be determined as sizeof A / sizeof
A[0]. The latter only applies to array names: variables declared with subscripts
(int A[20]). Due to the semantics of C, it is not possible to determine the
entire size of arrays through pointers to arrays or those created by dynamic
allocation (malloc); code such as sizeof arr / sizeof arr[0] (where arr
designates a pointer) will not work since the compiler assumes the size of the
pointer itself is being requested.[34][35] Since array name arguments to sizeof
are not converted to pointers, they do not exhibit such ambiguity. However,
arrays created by dynamic allocation are accessed by pointers rather than true
array variables, so they suffer from the same sizeof issues as array pointers.

Thus, despite this apparent equivalence between array and pointer variables,
there is still a distinction to be made between them. Even though the name of an
array is, in most expression contexts, converted into a pointer (to its first
element), this pointer does not itself occupy any storage; the array name is not
an l-value, and its address is a constant, unlike a pointer variable.
Consequently, what an array 'points to' cannot be changed, and it is impossible
to assign a new address to an array name. Array contents may be copied, however,
by using the memcpy function, or by accessing the individual elements.


MEMORY MANAGEMENT[EDIT]

One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide
facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C
provides three distinct ways to allocate memory for objects:[28]

 * Static memory allocation: space for the object is provided in the binary at
   compile-time; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the
   binary which contains them is loaded into memory.
 * Automatic memory allocation: temporary objects can be stored on the stack,
   and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which
   they are declared is exited.
 * Dynamic memory allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be
   requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of
   memory called the heap; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for
   reuse by calling the library function realloc or free

These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various
trade-offs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation
overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic
memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both
allocation and deallocation. The persistent nature of static objects is useful
for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is
easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than
either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows
convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C
programs make extensive use of all three.

Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the
storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially
error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. However, many
data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and
automatic allocations before C99) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there
are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary.[28] Prior to the
C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common example of this. (See the
article on malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays.) Unlike
automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences,
the dynamic allocation functions return an indication (in the form of a null
pointer value) when the required storage cannot be allocated. (Static allocation
that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader, before the
program can even begin execution.)

Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values
upon program startup. Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are
initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they
initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever bit pattern happens to
be present in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that
type). If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are
undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but
both false positives and false negatives can occur.

Another issue is that heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its
actual usage in any program in order for it to be reused as much as possible.
For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope
or has its value overwritten before free() is called, then that memory cannot be
recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon
known as a memory leak. Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed but
continue to be referenced, leading to unpredictable results. Typically, the
symptoms will appear in a portion of the program far removed from the actual
error, making it difficult to track down the problem. (Such issues are
ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection.)


LIBRARIES[EDIT]

The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In
C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single 'archive' file.
Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the
functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and
declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions.
In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header
file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases
requires compiler flags (e.g., -lm, shorthand for 'link the math library').[28]

The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified by the
ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation (implementations
which target limited environments such as embedded systems may provide only a
subset of the standard library). This library supports stream input and output,
memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values. Several
separate standard headers (for example, stdio.h) specify the interfaces for
these and other standard library facilities.

Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications
specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which
provide an interface to the kernel. These functions are detailed in various
standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.

Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other
libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers
generate efficient object code; programmers then create interfaces to the
library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java,
Perl, and Python.[28]


FILE HANDLING AND STREAMS[EDIT]

File input and output (I/O) is not part of the C language itself but instead is
handled by libraries (such as the C standard library) and their associated
header files (e.g. stdio.h). File handling is generally implemented through
high-level I/O which works through streams. A stream is from this perspective a
data flow that is independent of devices, while a file is a concrete device. The
high level I/O is done through the association of a stream to a file. In the C
standard library, a buffer (a memory area or queue) is temporarily used to store
data before it's sent to the final destination. This reduces the time spent
waiting for slower devices, for example a hard drive or solid state drive.
Low-level I/O functions are not part of the standard C library but are generally
part of 'bare metal' programming (programming that's independent of any
operating system such as most but not all embedded programming). With few
exceptions, implementations include low-level I/O.


LANGUAGE TOOLS[EDIT]

A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers find and fix
statements with undefined behavior or possibly erroneous expressions, with
greater rigor than that provided by the compiler. The tool lint was the first
such, leading to many others.

Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and
for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to
detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes
Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can
optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually
be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable
code, developed for embedded systems.[36]

There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for
performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as bounds checking
for arrays, detection of buffer overflow, serialization, dynamic memory
tracking, and automatic garbage collection.

Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special
versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in
memory usage.


USES[EDIT]

The TIOBE index graph, showing a comparison of the popularity of various
programming languages[37]

C is widely used for systems programming in implementing operating systems and
embedded system applications,[38] because C code, when written for portability,
can be used for most purposes, yet when needed, system-specific code can be used
to access specific hardware addresses and to perform type punning to match
externally imposed interface requirements, with a low run-time demand on system
resources.

C can also be used for website programming using CGI as a 'gateway' for
information between the Web application, the server, and the browser.[39] C is
often chosen over interpreted languages because of its speed, stability, and
near-universal availability.[40]

One consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers,
libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented
in C. The reference implementations of Python, Perl and PHP, for example, are
all written in C.

Because the layer of abstraction is thin and the overhead is low, C enables
programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data
structures, useful for computationally intense programs. For example, the GNU
Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica,
and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C.

C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other
languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C
as an intermediate language, additional machine-specific code generators are not
necessary. C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and
optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that support
compilation of generated code. However, some of C's shortcomings have prompted
the development of other C-based languages specifically designed for use as
intermediate languages, such as C--.

C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications. However, such
applications can also be written in newer, higher-level languages.


RELATED LANGUAGES[EDIT]

C has both directly and indirectly influenced many later languages such as C#,
D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Python, and Unix's C shell.[41]
The most pervasive influence has been syntactical, all of the languages
mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression
syntax of C with type systems, data models and/or large-scale program structures
that differ from those of C, sometimes radically.

Several C or near-C interpreters exist, including Ch and CINT, which can also be
used for scripting.

When object-oriented languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were two
different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both
languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers; source code
was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.[42]

The C++ programming language was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup as an approach to
providing object-oriented functionality with a C-like syntax.[43] C++ adds
greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented
programming, and permits generic programming via templates. Nearly a superset of
C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions.

Objective-C was originally a very 'thin' layer on top of C, and remains a strict
superset of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid
dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and
Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function
declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for
object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.

In addition to C++ and Objective-C, Ch, Cilk and Unified Parallel C are nearly
supersets of C.


SEE ALSO[EDIT]


NOTES[EDIT]


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 1. ^The original example code will compile on most modern compilers that are
    not in strict standard compliance mode, but it does not fully conform to the
    requirements of either C89 or C99. In fact, C99 requires that a diagnostic
    message be produced.
 2. ^The main function actually has two arguments, int argc and char *argv[],
    respectively, which can be used to handle command line arguments. The ISO C
    standard (section 5.1.2.2.1) requires both forms of main to be supported,
    which is special treatment not afforded to any other function.


REFERENCES[EDIT]

 1.  ^ abcdKernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (February 1978). The C
     Programming Language (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
     ISBN978-0-13-110163-0.
 2.  ^Ritchie (1993): 'Thompson had made a brief attempt to produce a system
     coded in an early version of C—before structures—in 1972, but gave up the
     effort.'
 3.  ^Ritchie (1993): 'The scheme of type composition adopted by C owes
     considerable debt to Algol 68, although it did not, perhaps, emerge in a
     form that Algol's adherents would approve of.'
 4.  ^'Introduction'. Ring 1.10 documentation. Ring (programming language).
     Retrieved 27 June 2019.
 5.  ^ ab'Verilog HDL (and C)'(PDF). The Research School of Computer Science at
     the Australian National University. 2010-06-03. Archived from the
     original(PDF) on 2013-11-06. Retrieved 2013-08-19. 1980s: ; Verilog first
     introduced ; Verilog inspired by the C programming language
 6.  ^Ritchie (1993)
 7.  ^'Programming Language Popularity'. 2009. Archived from the original on 13
     December 2007. Retrieved 16 January 2009.
 8.  ^'TIOBE Programming Community Index'. 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
 9.  ^'History of C - cppreference.com'. en.cppreference.com.
 10. ^ abcRitchie, Dennis M. (March 1993). 'The Development of the C Language'.
     ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 28 (3): 201–208. doi:10.1145/155360.155580.
 11. ^Ritchie, Dennis. 'BCPL to B to C'.
 12. ^ abJohnson, S. C.; Ritchie, D. M. (1978). 'Portability of C Programs and
     the UNIX System'. Bell System Tech. J. 57 (6): 2021–2048.
     CiteSeerX10.1.1.138.35. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1978.tb02141.x. (Note: this
     reference is an OCR scan of the original, and contains an OCR glitch
     rendering 'IBM 370' as 'IBM 310'.)
 13. ^McIlroy, M. D. (1987). A Research Unix reader: annotated excerpts from the
     Programmer's Manual, 1971–1986(PDF) (Technical report). CSTR. Bell Labs. p.
     10. 139.
 14. ^ abKernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (March 1988). The C Programming
     Language (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
     ISBN978-0-13-110362-7.
 15. ^Stroustrup, Bjarne (2002). Sibling rivalry: C and C++(PDF) (Report). AT&T
     Labs.
 16. ^C Integrity. International Organization for Standardization. 1995-03-30.
 17. ^'JTC1/SC22/WG14 – C'. Home page. ISO/IEC. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
 18. ^Andrew Binstock (October 12, 2011). 'Interview with Herb Sutter'. Dr.
     Dobbs. Retrieved September 7, 2013.
 19. ^'TR 18037: Embedded C'(PDF). ISO / IEC. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
 20. ^Harbison, Samuel P.; Steele, Guy L. (2002). C: A Reference Manual (5th
     ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-089592-9. Contains
     a BNF grammar for C.
 21. ^Kernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (1996). The C Programming Language
     (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 192. ISBN7 302 02412 X.
 22. ^Page 3 of the original K&R[1]
 23. ^ISO/IEC 9899:201x (ISO C11) Committee Draft
 24. ^Kernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (1996). The C Programming Language
     (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 192, 259. ISBN7 302 02412 X.
 25. ^'10 Common Programming Mistakes in C++'. Cs.ucr.edu. Retrieved 26 June
     2009.
 26. ^Schultz, Thomas (2004). C and the 8051 (3rd ed.). Otsego, MI: PageFree
     Publishing Inc. p. 20. ISBN978-1-58961-237-2. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
 27. ^Page 6 of the original K&R[1]
 28. ^ abcdefgKlemens, Ben (2013). 21st Century C. O'Reilly Media.
     ISBN978-1-4493-2714-9.
 29. ^Feuer, Alan R.; Gehani, Narain H. (March 1982). 'Comparison of the
     Programming Languages C and Pascal'. ACM Computing Surveys. 14 (1): 73–92.
     doi:10.1145/356869.356872.
 30. ^Page 122 of K&R2[14]
 31. ^For example, gcc provides _FORTIFY_SOURCE. 'Security Features: Compile
     Time Buffer Checks (FORTIFY_SOURCE)'. fedoraproject.org. Retrieved
     2012-08-05.
 32. ^เอี่ยมสิริวงศ์, โอภาศ (2016). Programming with C. Bangkok, Thailand:
     SE-EDUCATION PUBLIC COMPANY LIMITED. pp. 225–230. ISBN978-616-08-2740-4.
 33. ^Raymond, Eric S. (11 October 1996). The New Hacker's Dictionary (3rd ed.).
     MIT Press. p. 432. ISBN978-0-262-68092-9. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
 34. ^Summit, Steve. 'comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions 6.23'. Retrieved
     March 6, 2013.
 35. ^Summit, Steve. 'comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions 7.28'. Retrieved
     March 6, 2013.
 36. ^'Man Page for lint (freebsd Section 1)'. unix.com. 2001-05-24. Retrieved
     2014-07-15.
 37. ^McMillan, Robert (2013-08-01). 'Is Java Losing Its Mojo?'. Wired.
 38. ^Chip., Weems (2014). Programming and problem solving with C++ : brief,
     sixth edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN978-1449694289.
     OCLC894992484.
 39. ^Dr. Dobb's Sourcebook. U.S.A.: Miller Freeman, Inc. November–December
     1995.
 40. ^'Using C for CGI Programming'. linuxjournal.com. 1 March 2005. Retrieved 4
     January 2010.
 41. ^Gerard), O'Regan, Gerard (Cornelius (2015-09-24). Pillars of computing : a
     compendium of select, pivotal technology firms. ISBN978-3319214641.
     OCLC922324121.
 42. ^Lawrence., Rauchwerger (2004). Languages and compilers for parallel
     computing : 16th international workshop, LCPC 2003, College Station, TX,
     USA, October 2-4, 2003 : revised papers. Springer. ISBN978-3540246442.
     OCLC57965544.
 43. ^Stroustrup, Bjarne (1993). 'A History of C++: 1979−1991'(PDF). Retrieved 9
     June 2011.


SOURCES[EDIT]

 * Ritchie, Dennis M. (1993). The Development of the C Language. The second ACM
   SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II). Cambridge, MA,
   USA — April 20–23, 1993: ACM. pp. 201–208. doi:10.1145/154766.155580.
   ISBN0-89791-570-4. Retrieved 2014-11-04.


C&C 3 TIBERIUM WARS


FURTHER READING[EDIT]

 * Kernighan, Brian; Ritchie, Dennis (1988). The C Programming Language (2 ed.).
   Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0131103627.(archive)
 * Plauger, P.J. (1992). The Standard C library (1 ed.). Prentice Hall.
   ISBN978-0131315099.(archive)
 * Banahan, M.; Brady, D.; Doran, M. (1991). The C Book (2 ed.). Addison-Wesley.
   ISBN978-0201544336.(archive)
 * Feuer, Alan (1998). The C Puzzle Book (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley.
   ISBN978-0201604610.(archive)
 * Harbison, Samuel; Steele Jr, Guy (2002). C: A Reference Manual (5 ed.).
   Pearson. ISBN978-0130895929.
 * King, K.N. (2008). C Programming: A Modern Approach (2 ed.). W. W. Norton &
   Company. ISBN978-0393979503.
 * Perry, Greg; Miller, Dean (2013). C Programming Absolute Beginner's Guide (3
   ed.). Que. ISBN978-0789751980.


EXTERNAL LINKS[EDIT]

 * ISO/IEC 9899, publicly available official C documents, including the C99
   Rationale
 * 'C99 with Technical corrigenda TC1, TC2, and TC3 included'(PDF).(3.61 MB)
 * A History of C, by Dennis Ritchie


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