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   * Oil Analysis
     * Engine Oil Analysis
     * Used Oil Analysis
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   * Putting the Simple Back into Viscosity
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   * What’s in your Motor Oil
 * Q & A
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     * Gumout Q&A – March 2017
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     * Ethanol Fuels and Phase Separation
     * Gumout Q&A with Ryan Tuerck
     * Gumout Q & A – Sept 2015
     * Gumout GDI Q & A June 2015
     * Gumout Q & A – April 2015
     * Gumout Q & A – June 2014
   * Pennzoil Q & A
     * 0w-16 & SN Plus
     * Pennzoil Q & A
     * Pennzoil All-Yellow Packaging FAQS
     * Complete Protection & Debunking Myths – Round 1
     * GF-6 and Low Viscosity Engine Oil
     * Valve Train and Timing Chain Wear – Round 2
     * Lower Viscosity Grades – Round 3
   * Shell Rotella
     * Gas Truck Q & A
 * Glossary


Select Page
 * Home
 * Oil Forums
 * Articles
   * Automatic Transmissions – A Study
   * Esters In Synthetic Lubricants
   * Friction Reducers and AW Additives
   * How your Blackstone sample is processed
   * Motor Oil University
   * New Railroad Diesel Engine Low SAP Oils
   * Oil Analysis
     * Engine Oil Analysis
     * Used Oil Analysis
     * Used Oil Analysis: How to decide what is normal
     * What is Oil Analysis?
     * Used Oil Analysis – How your Blackstone sample is processed
   * Putting the Simple Back into Viscosity
   * A Review of Mineral and Synthetic Base Oils
   * What’s in your Motor Oil
 * Q & A
   * Chevron Q & A
     * Chevron Q&A April 2015
     * Chevron Q&A April 2016
   * Dayco Q&A
   * Gumout Q & A
     * Testing the efficacy of Gumout One-N-Done with ASTM 5500
     * Gumout Q&A – March 2017
     * Gumout Questions with Rusty
     * Gumout – Cleaning of GDI Deposits
     * Ethanol Fuels and Phase Separation
     * Gumout Q&A with Ryan Tuerck
     * Gumout Q & A – Sept 2015
     * Gumout GDI Q & A June 2015
     * Gumout Q & A – April 2015
     * Gumout Q & A – June 2014
   * Pennzoil Q & A
     * 0w-16 & SN Plus
     * Pennzoil Q & A
     * Pennzoil All-Yellow Packaging FAQS
     * Complete Protection & Debunking Myths – Round 1
     * GF-6 and Low Viscosity Engine Oil
     * Valve Train and Timing Chain Wear – Round 2
     * Lower Viscosity Grades – Round 3
   * Shell Rotella
     * Gas Truck Q & A
 * Glossary



By MolaKule


INTRODUCTION:

Conventional lubricants are formulated based on mineral oils derived from
petroleum. Mineral oils contain many classes of chemical components including
aromatics, paraffins, naphthenes, sulfur and nitrogen species, etc, and its
composition is determined primarily by the crude source. Un-additized mineral
oils may be good for general purpose use, but are not optimized for any
performance feature.

However, conventional mineral oils composed of Group II oils, using the latest
refining and extraction techniques, offer advantages not seen in oils from the
1940’s through the 1970’s.

In order to set the stage, let us first review the basic API Groups of base oils
and discuss their basic refining and crude oil processing techniques.


SECTION I: GROUP I THROUGH 3 BASE OILS.

SOLVENT REFINING

[Definition of Wax: Wax is a large hydrocarbon molecule that prevents oil from
flowing at colder temperatures; paraffin, a flammable, whitish, translucent,
waxy solid consisting of a mixture of saturated hydrocarbons, and obtained by
distillation from petroleum or shale and used in candles, cosmetics, polishes,
and sealing and waterproofing compounds; In chemistry, paraffin is used
synonymously with alkane, indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula
CnH2n+2].

[Definition of Catalyst: A substance that participates in chemical reactions by
increasing the rate of reaction, yet the catalyst remains intact after the
reaction is complete].

In the past, two-thirds of the base oil in North America were manufactured using
solvent refining. Solvent refined base oils are commonly called Group I base
oils which are characterized as those having less than 90% saturates (>10%
aromatics) and more than 300 ppm sulfur.

The solvents and hardware used to manufacture solvent-refined base oils have
changed over time, but the basic strategy has not changed since 1930. The two
main processing steps are:

 1. Remove aromatics by solvent extraction.
 2. Remove wax by chilling and precipitation in the presence of a different
    solvent.

Aromatics are removed by solvent extraction to improve the lubricating quality
of the oil. Aromatics make good solvents but they make poor quality base oils
because they are among the most reactive components in the natural lube boiling
range.

Oxidation of aromatics can start a chain reaction that can dramatically shorten
the useful life of a base oil.

The viscosity of aromatic components in a base oil also responds relatively
poorly to changes in temperature. Lubricants are often designed to provide a
viscosity that is low enough for good cold weather starting and high enough to
provide adequate film thickness and lubricity in hot, high-severity service.
Therefore, when hot and cold performance is required, a small response to
changes in temperature is desired.

The lubricants industry expresses this response as the viscosity index (V.I.). A
higher V.I. indicates a smaller, more favorable response to temperature.
Correspondingly, many turbine manufacturers have a minimum V.I. specification
for their turbine oils. Base oil selection is key for meeting this specification
because turbine oil additives do not normally contribute positively to the V.I.
in turbine oil formulations.

Aromatics are removed by feeding the raw lube distillate (vacuum gas oil) into a
solvent extractor where it is contacted countercurrently with a solvent. Popular
choices of solvent are furfural, n-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP), and DUO-SOL™.
Phenol was another popular solvent but it is rarely used today due to
environmental concerns. Solvent extraction typically removes 50-80% of the
impurities (aromatics, polars, sulfur and nitrogen containing species).

The resulting product of solvent extraction is usually referred to as a
raffinate. The second step is solvent dewaxing. Wax is removed from the oil to
keep it from freezing. Wax is removed by first diluting the raffinate with a
solvent to lower its viscosity to improve low-temperature filterability.

Popular dewaxing solvents are methyl-ethyl ketone (MEK)/toluene,
MEK/methyl-isobutyl ketone, or (rarely) propane. The diluted oil is then chilled
to -10 to -200C. Wax crystals form, precipitate, and are removed by filtration.

HYDROTREATING (PREDOMINATELY GROUP I)

 Hydrotreating was developed in the 1950s and first used in base oil
manufacturing in the 1960s by Amoco and others. It was used as an additional
“cleanup” step added to the end of a conventional solvent refining process.

Hydrotreating is a process for adding hydrogen to the base oil at elevated
temperatures in the presence of catalyst to stabilize the most reactive
components in the base oil, improve color, and increase the useful life of the
base oil. This process removed some of the nitrogen and sulfur containing
molecules but was not severe enough to remove a significant amount of aromatic
molecules. Hydrotreating was a small improvement in base oil technology that
would become more important later.

HYDROCRACKING (PREDOMINATELY GROUP II)

 Hydrocracking is a more severe form of hydroprocessing. It is done by adding
hydrogen to the base oil feed at even higher temperatures and pressures than
simple hydrotreating. Feed molecules are reshaped and often cracked into smaller
molecules. A great majority of the sulfur, nitrogen, and aromatics are removed.
Molecular reshaping of the remaining saturated species occurs as naphthenic
rings are opened and paraffin isomers are redistributed, driven by
thermodynamics with reaction rates facilitated by catalysts. Clean fuels are
byproducts of this process.

Chevron commercialized this technology for fuels production in the late 1950’s.
In 1969 the first hydrocracker for Base Oil Manufacturing was commercialized in
Idemitsu Kosan Company’s Chiba Refinery using technology licensed by Gulf. This
was followed by Sun Oil Company’s Yabucoa Refinery in Puerto Rico in 1971, also
using Gulf technology.

Group II base oils are differentiated from Group I base oils because they
contain significantly lower levels of impurities (<10% aromatics, <300 ppm S).
They also look different. Group II oils are so pure that they have almost no
color at all. From a performance standpoint, improved purity means that the base
oil and the additives in the finished product can last much longer. More
specifically, the oil is more inert and forms less oxidation byproducts that
increase base oil viscosity and react with additives.

CATALYTIC DEWAXING AND WAX HYDROISOMERIZATION GROUP III

 [Definition: ISODEWAXING™: A patented process developed by Chevron which
includes the catalytic hydroprocessing steps of Hydrocracking,
Hydroisomerization, and Hydrotreating to produce Group III oils].

[Definition: isomerization; the chemical process by which a compound is
transformed into any of its isomeric forms, i.e., forms with the same chemical
composition but with different structure or configuration and, hence, generally
with different physical and chemical properties; the process by which one
molecule is transformed into another molecule which has exactly the same atoms,
but the atoms have a different arrangement.



 The first catalytic dewaxing and wax hydroisomerization technologies were
commercialized in the 1970s. Shell used wax hydroisomerization technology
coupled with solvent dewaxing to manufacture extra high V.I. base oils in
Europe. Exxon and others built similar plants in the 1990s. In the U.S., Mobil
used catalytic dewaxing in place of solvent dewaxing, but still coupled it with
solvent extraction to manufacture conventional oils.

Catalytic dewaxing was a desirable alternative to solvent dewaxing especially
for conventional neutral oils, because it removed n-paraffins and waxy side
chains from other molecules by catalytically cracking them into smaller
molecules. This process lowered the pour point of the base oil so that it flowed
at low temperatures, like solvent dewaxed oils. Hydroisomerization also
saturated the majority of remaining aromatics and removed the majority of
remaining sulfur and nitrogen species.

Chevron was the first to combine catalytic dewaxing with hydrocracking and 
hydrofinishing in their Richmond, California base oil plant in 1984. This was
the first commercial demonstration of an all-hydroprocessing route for lube base
oil manufacturing.

In 1993, the first modern wax hydroisomerization process was commercialized by
Chevron. This was an improvement over earlier catalytic dewaxing because the
pour point of the base oil was lowered by isomerizing (reshaping) the
n-paraffins and other molecules with waxy side chains into very desirable
branched compounds with superior lubricating qualities rather than cracking them
away. Hydroisomerization was also an improvement over earlier wax
hydroisomerization technology, because it eliminated the subsequent solvent
dewaxing step, which was a requirement for earlier generation wax isomerization
technologies to achieve adequate yield at standard pour points. Modern wax
hydroisomerization makes products with exceptional purity and stability due to
extremely high degree of saturation. They are very distinctive because, unlike
other base oils, they typically have no color.

By combining three catalytic hydroprocessing steps (Hydrocracking,
Hydroisomerization, Hydrotreating), molecules with poor lubricating qualities
are reshaped into higher quality base oil molecules. Pour point, V.I., and
oxidation stability are controlled independently.

All three steps convert undesirable molecules into desirable ones, rather than
have one, two, or all three steps rely on subtraction.

Among the many benefits of this combination of processes is greater crude oil
flexibility; that is, less reliance on a narrow range of crude oils from which
to make high-quality base oils. In addition, the base oil performance is
exceptionally favorable and substantially independent of crude source, unlike
solvent-refined base oil.

So base oils with a “conventional” V.I. (80-119) are Group II. Base oils with an
“unconventional” V.I. (120+) are Group III. Group III oils have also been called
unconventional base oils (UCBOs) or very high V.I. (VHVI) base oils.

Modern Group III oils have greatly improved oxidation stability and low
temperature performance. Consequently, many group I or II plants are now being
upgraded to enable them to make the modern hydroisomerized Group III oils.

Modern Group III oils today can be designed and manufactured so that their
performance closely matches PAOs in most commercially finished lube
applications.

From a processing standpoint, modern Group III base oils are manufactured by
essentially the same processing route as modern Group II base oils. Higher V.I.
is achieved by increasing the temperature or time in the hydrocracker. This is
sometimes collectively referred to as the “severity.” Alternatively, the product
V.I. could be increased simply by increasing the feed V.I., which is typically
done by selecting the appropriate crude.

Summary of Section I: So up to this point, we see that Group I to III base oils
(excepting GTL, below) result from a succession of steps defined by the severity
of processing and the catalyzation of crude oil. I.e., the “reshaping of
molecules via catalytic action.”

GAS-TO-LIQUID (GTL) BASE OILS:

The API classifies GTL base oils as Group III or unofficially it has been
called, “Group III+.”  It is this author’s view that the GTL process results in
a “synthesized” oil and should be given a separate API classification as they do
PAO, or moved to the Group V classification. A separate, future debate can
address this issue and will not be further discussed here in this white paper.

SECTION II: SYNTHETIC BASE OILS GROUP IV AND V

[Definition: Chemical Synthesis; the process of constructing
complex chemical compounds from selected, simpler ones; it is applied to all
types of chemical compounds, but most syntheses are of organic molecules;
chemical synthesis involves the combination of two or more selected atoms (or
molecules) to make a finished and predictable product].

[Definition: Synthetic Lubricant; a lubricant made by the process of chemical
synthesis in contrast to the successive refinement or extraction of mineral
oils].

Since many chemical substances do not occur naturally, or in enough quantity or
purity for commercialization, we resort to chemical synthesis to make new
products.

For example aspirin is made by synthesis using an
esterification reaction. Salicylic acid is treated with acetic anhydride, an
acid derivative, causing a chemical reaction that turns salicylic
acid’s hydroxyl group into an ester group (R-OH → R-OCOCH3). This process yields
aspirin and acetic acid, which is considered a byproduct of this reaction. Small
amounts of a specific acid are always used as a catalyst. (D. R.
Palleros, Experimental Organic Chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons. (2000)).

During a chemical synthesis, we refer to the starting materials as
the reactants. Think of the reactants as your basic building blocks; they are
your atoms (or molecules) that are absolutely required to complete any chemical
synthesis reaction. The type of product made varies and is dependent on the
reactants.

When the atoms (or molecules) combine, they will form a product. What drives
this ability to make a product, using reactants, is a chemical reaction, a
process that is driving the formation of a product using different starting
materials, or reactants. With chemical syntheses, these processes generally only
go in one direction.

A synthetic chemical is then made from the ground up in the laboratory or the
chemical processing plant by the process of synthesis, as differentiated from
refinement or extraction.

A synthetic base oil is produced from well-defined, carefully chosen chemical
compounds, and by a specific chain of chemical reactions. A molecularly
engineered base stock is optimized for viscosity index, pour point, volatility,
oxidative stability, flash point, shear stability, and other desirable
properties. Classified as API Group IV and Group V base oils.

The use of the word “synthetic” in the lubricants industry has historically been
synonymous with polymerized base oils such as poly-alpha olefins (PAOs), Esters,
and other synthesized base oils, such as alkylated naphthalenes (AN), which are
made from selected starting atoms or molecules.

Some authors have stated that the term “synthetic” was given a special meaning
by the lubricants industry because these types of oils were the only components
available for high-performance lubricants at that time. This is purely an
attempt to obfuscate the issue.

Since PAO (Group IV) and Ester base oils (Group IV) are synthesized base oils,
what better phrase to use than, “Synthetic Lubricant?”

Other authors and marketing media have attempted to further obfuscate the issue
by using the word, “Performance,” in advertising media, as if ‘performance”
somehow equaled “synthetic.” While Group III base oils approach the
characteristics of Group IV base oils, “performance” is not a chemistry term,
but rather an ambiguous term used by marketing.

In an attempt to further clarify the issue, finished engine oils (base oils plus
additives) are NOT to be placed into any base group, as has been attempted by
our beloved and uneducated marketing folks.

In academia and in the chemical industry, the term “synthetic” never meant
anything different than the definition given above.

The first commercially viable process for making Group IV PAO was pioneered by
Gulf Oil in 1951 using an AlCl3 catalyst. Mobil patented an improved process
using a BF3/AlCl3 catalyst in the 1960s.

[Definition: Polymerization; the process of forming a repeating chain molecule].

[Definition: Monomer; A monomer is a molecule that forms the basic unit for
polymers; Monomers may bind to other monomers as well. Monomers may be either
natural or synthetic in origin and form a repeating chain molecule via a process
called polymerization].



[Definition: Oligomers; Oligomers are polymers consisting of a small number
(typically under one hundred) of monomer subunits].



[Definition: Oligimerization; a chemical process that converts monomers to
macromolecular complexes through a finite degree of polymerization].



[Definition: Olefin; an alkene, or unsaturated hydrocarbon with the general
formula CnH2n. The simplest olefin is ethylene (ethene) gas, H2C=CH2 or simply,
C2H4].



PAO’s are the workhorses of synthetic and Blend lubricating oils, comprising
greater than 45% of the synthetic base oil market.

For PAO synthesis, the starting olefins (see above definition) can be is
1-Decene, (C10H20), or 1-Dodecene, or 1-Tetradecene.

1-Decene, or 1-Dodecene, or 1-Tetradecene liquids are produced by the
oligomerization of the simpler ethylene gas molecule. It is one of the many
Linear Alpha-Olefins (LAOs) used in the growth process to finally yield LAOs.

[Note: 1-Decene liquid has a kinematic viscosity of 1.013 cSt@20C, the
1-Dodecene liquid has a kinematic viscosity of 1.6 cSt@20C, and the
1-Tetradecene liquid has a kinematic viscosity of 5.9 cSt@20C! Compare to the
viscosity of water which has a kinematic viscosity of 1.0034 cSt@20C].



The 1-Decene, or 1-Dodecene, or 1-Tetradecene liquids becomes a PAO liquid by
polymerization (the linking together of monomers) using the Friedel-Crafts
process. This process uses a catalyst, specific temperature conditions, and
specific pressures to give rise to the higher olefin oligomers, such as the C20
through C70 olefins. The degree of polymerization is dependent upon the type of
catalyst used. For example, a Boron Triflouride (BF3) catalyst gives low
viscosity base stocks from about 2.4 to 8.0 cSt. An Aluminum Trichloride (AlCl3)
catalyst will produce higher viscosity PAOs from 10 cSt on up.

The final process in the PAO synthesis is to introduce hydrogen at specific
temperatures and pressures to create a fully saturated hydrocarbon. This
hydrogenation process enhances the oxidation stability of the PAO.

So the PAO development process is essentially: ethylene gas >> 1-Decene, or
1-Dodecene, or 1-Tetradecene liquid monomer >> Oligimerization into liquid
polymers >> Hydrogenation of polymer >> Finished PAO.

PAO’s offer improved viscosimetrics’ (higher Viscosity Indices), lower
volativities (decreased oil consumption), higher heat conduction (approximately
10% greater thermal energy transfer), and improved oxidation stability (longer
drain intervals) over Group I to III mineral oils.

Esters are a class of synthesized products derived from the chemical reactions
of selected alcohols and acids.

[Definition: Hydrolysis; a chemical reaction that causes a substance, in the
presence of water, to split into two parts. In such reactions, one fragment of
the target molecule (or parent molecule) gains a hydrogen ion].



Esters occur naturally in many plant and animal species. However, unprocessed
plant and animal oils also contain other products that tend to increase
oxidation and lead to degradation, and therefore are not suitable for lubricants
in their unmodified states.

Many plant and animal oils are processed such that after pressing and or
chemical extraction, the acids are separated from the other products. The
resulting acids are then reacted with selected alcohols to produce an ester with
characteristics and qualities far superior to unmodified plant and animal oils.

Ester starting materials are also made from chemicals derived from petroleum
refining processes.

(See also, Esters General

and,

This forum Post for a review of Esters in synthetic lubricants).

For example, a very useful ester in additive chemistry is the ZDDP molecule,
whose function is as an Anti-Wear (AW) and Oxidation Inhibitor (OI). Members of
the zinc dialkyldithiophosphate category are substances prepared by reacting
phosphorous pentasulfide (P2S5) with one or more primary or secondary C3-C10
branched or linear alcohols to form the phosphorodithioic acid ester. The only
exception is the alkaryl dithiophosphate where the alcohol moiety is
tetrapropenylphenol. The dithiophosphoric acid ester is further diluted with
10-15 wt-% highly refined lubricating base oil (typical CAS #s 64742-54-7 and
64741-88-4) before it is neutralized with zinc oxide. The oil acts as a solvent
in the neutralization reaction, manages the viscosity of the final product and
improves consistency. The zinc complex that is formed upon neutralization is not
a salt in the traditional sense, since the Zn-S bond is more coordinate covalent
in character than ionic. (American Chemistry Council Publication 210-144870).
There are about 15 versions of ZDDP chemistry.

In fact, many other additive chemistries are esters or in an esterified form.

Synthetic Group V base oils include (but not limited to), esters (dibasic and
polyol), alkylated benzenes (ABs), alkylated napthalenes (ANs), Polyisobutylenes
(PIBs), phosphate esters, silicones, PAG’s (especially oil soluble PEGs or
OSPs), and other similar synthesized lubricants not including Group IV.  Note:
Not all oils in the Group V category are synthesized oils. We are limiting our
discussion to those Group V oils that are made by the synthesis process.

Ester’s and PAO’s are often used in blending stocks to improve the
characteristics of Group I through III base oils.

Esters offer advantages to base oil mixes such as improved solvency of
additives, improved sludge dispersancy, lower friction coefficient, improved
bio-degradeability, and improved thermal stability.

One of the first companies to successfully market a majority, ester-based
finished oil was the Amsoil Corporation. (Remember, I said, “successfully”).
This was a di-ester based finished oil that was formulated and packaged by the
Hatco Corporation, a pioneer in the production of a wide range of various ester
base oils.

As the price of esters increased, and reached a certain Return-on-Investment
(ROI) point, Amsoil and other companies began formulating finished products
containing PAO’s with esters and other Group V base oils such as AN’s.

Due to the possibility of hydrolysis in some esters, Group V alykylated
naphthalenes (AN’s) are often used alone or in combination with esters in
majority Synthetic formulations.

Summary of Section II: While Group III base oils have many positive
characteristics that approach Group IV and V oils, Groups IV and V are truly
synthesized oils using selected starting atoms or molecules, with specific and
predictable outcomes. So hopefully, we have at least clarified the issue
somewhat regardless of which side of the issue you may tilt.

SECTION III: DISCUSSION, OPINIONS, AND SUMMARY

[Definition: Finished lubricant; a lubricant in which a series of selected base
oils have been blended with a performance improvement additive package such that
the final product shows definitive improvements over the base oils alone].

Hopefully, the above sections have provided the reader with enough background
information so that he or she can now make an informed decision as to what is a
synthetic oil and what is not.

However, it is important to note a number of facts about modern finished
lubricants.

 * todays finished lubricants are composed of various viscosities of base oils
   and of various Groups of base oils to exhibit targeted characteristics in
   specific environments and applications,
 * performance improvement additive packages differ from one specific
   application to another,
 * it is the complete, finished overall package and not the specific base oil or
   oils, that constitute the final quality and performance of that lubricant.

Marketing propaganda and media hype will always attempt to persuade you that a
certain product has an advantage over another. This is a simply a fact in terms
of competition among manufactures.

Neither the NAD/BBB decision nor the PQIA stamp will solve this chaos. PQIA is
going in the right direction but more needs to be done.

However, unless we come to grips with definitive statements and guidelines as to
what is a synthetic lubricant is, and what is not, confusion will only continue.
Standards’ groups and committees such as the API, SAE, the S.T.L.E., ILMA and
others should address the goal of clarification and meet this issue head on.

As for labeling, I would suggest the following labeling standards for base oil
percentages using only three categories, based on a 75% content for base oils
with the rest allowed for additive content:

Automotive Full Synthetic Lubricant: 50% Group IV OR 50% GTL WITH the remaining
25% containing any combination of Group V components. Tolerance +, – 10% for
improvements in base oil technology.

Automotive Synthetic Blend: 40% of Group II WITH the remaining 35% containing
any combination of Groups III, GTL, IV and V. Tolerance +, – 15% for
improvements in base oil technology.

Automotive Conventional: 60% Group II WITH the remaining 15% containing any
combination of Groups III, GTL, IV and V. Tolerance +, – 20% for improvements in
base oil technology.

Acknowledgements:

Thanks to the many BITOG members and colleagues who suggested additional
comments and corrections. Many thanks to my “editor,” Mrs. MolaKule, for
proofreading and for her help in the “stoichiometrics’” of chemistry.

Much of the information in Section I was derived from Reference 1.

Much of the information in Section II was derived from References 7 and 8.

REFERENCES:

1. Kramer, D. C., Lok, B. K., Krug, R. R., “The Evolution of Base Oil
Technology,” Turbine Lubrication in the 21st Century, ASTM STP #1407, W. R.
Herguth and T. M. Warne, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials,
West, Conshohocken, PA, 2001.

2. D. R. Palleros, Experimental Organic Chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
(2000).

3. Freidel-Krafts Process, retrieved from,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedel%E2%80%93Crafts_reaction

4. W. Brown, C. Foot, B. Anderson, Organic Chemistry, Thompson, (2005).

5. T. Engel and P. Reid, Physical Chemistry, Pearson, (2006).

6. American Chemistry Council, various Publications

7. Synthetic Lubricant Base Stock Processes and Products, Retrieved
from, https://www.researchgate.net/publication…es_and_Products

8. Journal of Synthetic Lubricants, various issues.

 

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