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NORTHERN MOCKINGBIRD

HOME OF THE MIMUS POLYGLOTTOS

Species of bird



Northern mockingbird An adult in New York City
Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order:
Passeriformes Family: Mimidae Genus: Mimus Species:
M. polyglottos
Binomial name Mimus polyglottos

(Linnaeus, 1758)
Northern mockingbird range
  Breeding range
  Year-round range
Synonyms
 * Turdus polyglottos Linnaeus, 1758

The northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) is a mockingbird commonly found in
North America. This bird is mainly a permanent resident, but northern birds may
move south during harsh weather. This species has rarely been observed in
Europe. This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th
edition of Systema Naturae as Turdus polyglottos. The northern mockingbird is
known for its mimicking ability, as reflected by the meaning of its scientific
name, "many-tongued thrush". The northern mockingbird has gray to brown upper
feathers and a paler belly. Its tail and wings have white patches which are
visible in flight.[2]

The northern mockingbird is an omnivore, eating both insects and fruits. It is
often found in open areas and forest edges but forages in grassy land. The
northern mockingbird breeds in southeastern Canada, the United States, northern
Mexico, the Bahamas, the Cayman Islands and the Greater Antilles. It is replaced
further south by its closest living relative, the tropical mockingbird. The
Socorro mockingbird, an endangered species, is also closely related, contrary to
previous opinion. The northern mockingbird is listed as of least concern
according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

The northern mockingbird is known for its intelligence. A 2009 study showed that
the bird was able to recognize individual humans, particularly noting those who
had previously been intruders or threats.[3] Also birds recognize their breeding
spots and return to areas in which they had greatest success in previous years.
Urban birds are more likely to demonstrate this behavior.

The mockingbird is influential in United States culture, being the state bird of
five states, appearing in book titles, songs and lullabies, and making other
appearances in popular culture.


CONTENTS

 * 1 Taxonomy
   * 1.1 Subspecies
 * 2 Description
 * 3 Distribution and habitat
 * 4 Behavior
   * 4.1 Diet
   * 4.2 Breeding
     * 4.2.1 Sexual selection
     * 4.2.2 Sex allocation
     * 4.2.3 Mating
     * 4.2.4 Parental care
     * 4.2.5 Ontogeny
   * 4.3 Song and calls
 * 5 Predation and threats
 * 6 Intelligence
   * 6.1 Adaptation to urban habitats
 * 7 In culture
 * 8 State bird
 * 9 See also
 * 10 References
 * 11 External links


TAXONOMY[EDIT]

Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus first described this species in his Systema
Naturae in 1758 as Turdus polyglottos.[4] Its current genus name, Mimus is Latin
for "mimic" and the specific polyglottos, is from Ancient Greek poluglottos,
"harmonious", from polus, "many", and glossa, "tongue",[5] representing its
outstanding ability to mimic various sounds.[6] The northern mockingbird is
considered to be conspecific with the tropical mockingbird (Mimus gilvus).[7]

This species is categorized as the northern mockingbird as the closest living
relative to M. gilvus.[8][9]


SUBSPECIES[EDIT]

There are three recognized subspecies for the northern mockingbird.[10][11]
There have been proposed races from the Bahamas and Haiti placed under the
orpheus section.[11]

 * M. p. polyglottos (Linnaeus, 1758): generally found in the eastern portion of
   North America ranging from Nova Scotia to Nebraska, to as far south as Texas
   and Florida.[10][11]
 * M. p. leucopterus, the western mockingbird, (Vigors, 1839): generally found
   in the western portion of North America ranging from northwestern Nebraska
   and western Texas to the Pacific Coast, and south to Mexico (the Isthmus of
   Tehuantepec), and Socorro Island.[10][11] It is larger than M. p. polyglottos
   and has a slightly shorter tail, upperparts are more buff and paler,
   underparts have a stronger buff pigment.[10]
 * M. p. orpheus (Linnaeus, 1758) from the Bahamas to the Greater Antilles, also
   the Cayman and Virgin Islands.[11] Similar to M. m. polyglottos except
   smaller, a paler shade of gray on its back, and underparts with practically
   little, if any buff at all.[10]


DESCRIPTION[EDIT]

Adult at Sunset Beach, North Carolina
Fledgling mockingbird in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

The northern mockingbird is a medium-sized mimid that has long legs and
tail.[12] Males and females look alike.[13] Its upper parts are colored gray,
while its underparts have a white or whitish-gray color.[14] It has parallel
wing bars on the half of the wings connected near the white patch giving it a
distinctive appearance in flight.[14] The black central rectrices and typical
white lateral rectrices are also noticeable in flight.[14] The iris is usually a
light green-yellow or a yellow, but there have been instances of an orange
color.[10] The bill is black with a brownish black appearance at the base.[10]
The juvenile appearance is marked by its streaks on its back, distinguished
spots and streaks on its chest, and a gray or grayish-green iris.[10]

Northern mockingbirds measure from 20.5 to 28 cm (8.1 to 11.0 in) including a
tail almost as long as its body. The wingspan can range from 31–38 cm (12–15 in)
and body mass is from 40–58 g (1.4–2.0 oz). Males tend to be slightly larger
than females.[15][16] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 10 to 12 cm
(3.9 to 4.7 in), the tail is 10 to 13.4 cm (3.9 to 5.3 in), the culmen is 1.6 to
1.9 cm (0.63 to 0.75 in) and the tarsus is 2.9 to 3.4 cm (1.1 to 1.3 in).[10]

The northern mockingbird's lifespan is observed to be up to 8 years, but captive
birds can live up to 20 years.[17]


DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT[EDIT]

The mockingbird's breeding range is from Maritime provinces of Canada westwards
to British Columbia, practically the entire Continental United States south of
the northern Plains states and Pacific northwest, the Greater Antilles, and the
majority of Mexico to eastern Oaxaca and Veracruz.[10] The mockingbird is
generally a year-round resident of its range, but the birds that live in the
northern portion of its range have been noted further south during the winter
season.[14] Sightings of the mockingbird have also been recorded in Hawaii
(where it was introduced in the 1920s),[18] southeastern Alaska,[19] and three
times as transatlantic vagrants in Britain,[14] most recently in Exmouth, Devon,
UK in February and March 2021.[20] The mockingbird is thought to be at least
partly migratory in the northern portions of its range, but the migratory
behavior is not well understood.[18]

In the 19th century, the range of the mockingbird expanded northward towards
provinces such as Nova Scotia and Ontario and states such as Massachusetts,
although the sightings were sporadic. Within the first five decades of the 20th
century, regions that received an influx of mockingbirds were Maine, Vermont,
Ohio, Iowa, and New York.[18] In western states such as California, the
population was restricted to the Lower Sonoran regions but by the 1970s the
mockingbird was residential in most counties.[18] Islands that saw introductions
of the mockingbird include Bermuda (in which it failed), Barbados, St. Helena,
Socorro Island, the Cayman Islands and Tahiti.[18][21]

The mockingbird's habitat varies by location, but it prefers open areas with
sparse vegetation. In the eastern regions, suburban and urban areas such as
parks and gardens are frequent residential areas. It has an affinity for mowed
lawns with shrubs within proximity for shade and nesting.[14][18] In western
regions, desert scrub and chaparral are among its preferred habitats. When
foraging for food, it prefers short grass.[14] This bird does not nest in
densely forested areas,[10][22] and generally resides in the same habitats year
round.[18]


BEHAVIOR[EDIT]


DIET[EDIT]

The northern mockingbird is an omnivore. The birds' diet consists of arthropods
(such as spiders, grasshoppers, ants, beetles, and caterpillars),[23][24]
earthworms, berries, fruits, seeds, and occasionally small crustaceans[24] and
lizards.[10] Mockingbirds can drink from puddles, river and lake edges, or dew
and rain droplets that amass onto plants.[14] Adult mockingbirds also have been
seen drinking sap from the cuts on recently pruned trees.[14] Its diet heavily
consists of animal prey during the breeding season, but takes a drastic shift to
fruits during the fall and winter.[14] The drive for fruits amid winter has been
noted for the geographic expansion of the mockingbird, and in particular, the
fruit of Rosa multiflora, a favorite of the birds, is a possible link.[10][14]
Mockingbirds also eat garden fruits such as tomatoes, apples, and berries (like
blackberries, raspberries, other bramble fruits, holly berries, mulberries, and
dogwood), as well as grapes and figs.[25][26][23][24]


Displaying

These birds forage on the ground or in vegetation; they also fly down from a
perch to capture food.[14] While foraging, they frequently spread their wings in
a peculiar two-step motion to display the white patches. There is disagreement
among ornithologists over the purpose of this behavior, with hypotheses ranging
from deceleration to intimidation of predators or prey.[27][28]


BREEDING[EDIT]


A boundary dance between two mockingbirds

Both the male and female of the species reach sexual maturity after one year of
life. The breeding season occurs in the spring and early summer.[12] The males
arrive before the beginning of the season to establish their territories. They
may demonstrate or contest the edges of a territory using a boundary dance in
which males, typically on the ground, face each other and hop side to side,
sometimes fighting, until one flies away.[29][30] The males use a series of
courtship displays to attract the females to their sites.[12] They run around
the area either to showcase their territory to the females or to pursue the
females. The males also engage in flight to showcase their wings.[12] They sing
and call as they perform all of these displays. The species can remain
monogamous for many years, but incidents of polygyny and bigamy have been
reported to occur during a single bird's lifetime.[31][32]

Both the male and female are involved in the nest building.[33] The male does
most of the work, while the female perches on the shrub or tree where the nest
is being built to watch for predators. The nest is built approximately three to
ten feet above the ground.[33] The outer part of the nest is composed of twigs,
while the inner part is lined with grasses, dead leaves, moss, or artificial
fibers. The eggs are a light blue or greenish color and speckled with dots.[15]
The female lays three to five eggs, and she incubates them for nearly two weeks.
Once the eggs are hatched, both the male and female will feed the chicks.[33]

The birds aggressively defend their nests and surrounding areas against other
birds and animals.[33] When a predator is persistent, mockingbirds from
neighboring territories may be summoned by distinct calls to join the defense.
Other birds may gather to watch as the mockingbirds drive away the intruder. In
addition to harassing domestic cats and dogs that they consider a threat,[12]
mockingbirds will at times target humans. The birds are bold, and will attack
much larger birds, even hawks. One incident in Tulsa, Oklahoma involving a
postal carrier resulted in the distribution of a warning letter to
residents.[34]

The northern mockingbird pairs hatch about two to four broods a year. In one
breeding attempt, the northern mockingbird lays an average of four eggs.[12]
They are pale blue or greenish white with red or brown blotches, and measure
about 25 by 18 millimetres (0.98 by 0.71 in).They hatch after about 11 to 14
days of incubation by the female.[35] After about 10 to 15 days of life, the
offspring become independent.[12]

SEXUAL SELECTION[EDIT]


Adult mockingbirds have solid pale grey or buff breasts, juveniles mottled

Northern mockingbirds are famous for their song repertoires. Studies have shown
that males sing songs at the beginning of breeding season to attract
females.[36] Unmated males sing songs in more directions and sing more bouts
than mated males. In addition, unmated males perform more flight displays than
mated males.[14] The mockingbirds usually nest several times during one breeding
season.[37] Depending on the stage of breeding and the mating status, a male
mockingbird will vary his song production. The unmated male keeps close track of
this change. He sings in one direction when he perceives a chance to lure a
female from the nest of the mated male.[36] Unmated males are also more likely
to use elevated perches to make their songs audible farther away.[36] Though the
mockingbirds are socially monogamous, mated males have been known to sing to
attract additional mates.[31]

An observational study by Logan demonstrates that the female is continuously
evaluating the quality of the male and his territory.[38] The assessment is
usually triggered by the arrival of a new male in a neighboring territory at the
beginning of a new breeding season. In those cases, the mated female is
constantly seen flying over both the original and the new male's territory,
evaluating the qualities of both territories and exchanging calls with both
males.[38] The social mate displays aggressive behaviors towards the female,
while the new male shows less aggression and sings softer songs.[38] At the same
time, both the mated male and the new male will fly over other territories to
attract other females as well. Divorce, mate switching and extra-pair matings do
occur in northern mockingbirds.[14][38]

SEX ALLOCATION[EDIT]

Northern mockingbirds adjust the sex ratio of their offspring according to the
food availability and population density. Male offspring usually require more
parental investment. There is therefore a bias for bearing the costlier sex at
the beginning of a breeding season when the food is abundant.[39] Local resource
competition predicts that the parents have to share the resources with offspring
that remain at the natal site after maturation. In passerine birds, like the
northern mockingbird, females are more likely to disperse than males.[40] Hence,
it is adaptive to produce more dispersive sex than philopatric sex when the
population density is high and the competition for local resources is intense.
Since northern mockingbirds are abundant in urban environments, it is possible
that the pollution and contamination in cities might affect sexual hormones and
therefore play a role in offspring sex ratio.[41]

MATING[EDIT]

Northern mockingbirds are socially monogamous. The two sexes look alike except
that the male is slightly larger in size than the female. Mutual mate choice is
exhibited in northern mockingbirds.[42] Both males and females prefer mates that
are more aggressive towards intruders, and so exhibit greater parental
investment. However, males are more defensive of their nests than females. In a
population where male breeding adults outnumber female breeding adults, females
have more freedom in choosing their mates.[42] In these cases, these female
breeders have the option of changing mates within a breeding season if the first
male does not provide a high level of parental care, which includes feeding and
nest defense.[43] High nesting success is associated with highly aggressive
males attacking intruders in the territory, and so these males are preferred by
females.[43]

PARENTAL CARE[EDIT]


Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden

Northern mockingbirds are altricial, meaning that, when hatched, they are born
relatively immobile and defenseless and therefore require nourishment for a
certain duration from their parents. The young have a survival bottleneck at the
nestling stage because there are higher levels of nestling predation than egg
predation. The levels of belligerence exhibited by parents therefore increase
once eggs hatch but there is no increase during the egg stage.[42]


Eggs in a nest

A recent study shows that both food availability and temperature affect the
parental incubation of the eggs in northern mockingbirds. Increasing food
availability provides the females with more time to care for the nest and
perform self-maintenance. Increasing temperature, however, reduces the time the
females spend at the nest and there is increased energy cost to cool the eggs.
The incubation behavior is a trade-off among various environmental factors.[44]

Mockingbird nests are also often parasitized by cowbirds. The parents are found
to reject parasitic eggs at an intermediate rate.[45] A recent study has shown
that foreign eggs are more likely to be rejected from a nest later in the
breeding season than from earlier in a breeding season. Early nesting hosts may
not have learned the pattern and coloration of their first clutch yet, so are
less likely to reject foreign eggs. There is also a seasonal threshold in terms
of the overlap between the breeding seasons of the northern mockingbirds and
their parasites. If the breeding season of the parasites starts later, there is
less likelihood of parasitism. Hence, it pays the hosts to have relatively lower
sensitivity to parasitic eggs.[46]

ONTOGENY[EDIT]

A laboratory observation of 38 mockingbird nestlings and fledglings (thirty-five
and three, respectively) recorded the behavioral development of young
mockingbirds. Notable milestones included the eyes opening, soft vocalizations,
begging, and preening began within the first six days of life. Variation in
begging and more compact movements such as perching, fear crouching, and
stretching appeared by the ninth day. Wing-flashing, bathing, flight, and
leaving the nest happened within seventeen days (nest leaving occurred within 11
to 13 days). Improvements of flight, walking and self-feeding took place within
forty days. Agonistic behavior increased during the juvenile stages, to the
extent that one of two siblings living in the same area was likely killed by the
other.[47]


SONG AND CALLS[EDIT]

2:02

Songs and calls

Calling during spring

Although many species of bird imitate the vocalizations of other birds, the
northern mockingbird is the best known in North America for doing so. Among the
species and vocalizations imitated are Carolina wren, northern cardinal, tufted
titmouse, eastern towhee, house sparrow, wood thrush and eastern bluebird songs,
calls of the northern flicker and great crested flycatcher, jeers and
pumphandles of the blue jay, and alarm, chups, and chirrs of the American
robin.[48][49] It imitates not only birds, but also other animals such as cats,
dogs, frogs, crickets and sounds from artificial items such as unoiled wheels
and even car alarms. As convincing as these imitations may be to humans, they
often fail to fool other birds, such as the Florida scrub-jay.[50]

The northern mockingbird's mimicry is likely to serve as a form of sexual
selection through which competition between males and female choice influence a
bird's song repertoire size.[50] A 2013 study attempted to determine model
selection in vocal mimics, and the data suggested that mimicry in the
mockingbird resulted from the bird being genetically predisposed to learning
vocalizations with acoustic characteristics such as an enlarged auditory
template.[48]

Both male and female mockingbirds sing, with the latter being generally quieter
and less vocal. Male commencement of singing is in late January to February and
continues into the summer and the establishing of territory into the fall.
Frequency in female singing is more sporadic, as it sings less often in the
summer and fall, and only sings when the male is away from the territory.[14]
The mockingbird also possesses a large song repertoire that ranges from 43 to
203 song types and the size varies by region. Repertoire sizes ranged from 14 to
150 types in Texas, and two studies of mockingbirds in Florida rounded estimates
to 134 and 200, approximately.[14] It continually expands its repertoire during
its life,[14] though it pales in comparison to mimids such as the brown
thrasher.[51]

There are four recognized calls for the mockingbird: the nest relief call, hew
call, chat or chatburst, and the begging call.[14] The hew call is mainly used
by both sexes for potential nest predators, conspecific chasing, and various
interactions between mates. The differences between chats and chatbursts are
frequency of use, as chats are year-round, and chatbursts occur in the fall.[14]
Another difference is that chatbursts appear to be used in territorial defense
in the fall, and the chats are used by either sex when disturbed.[14] The nest
relief and begging calls are only used by the males.[14]


PREDATION AND THREATS[EDIT]


Riding a red-tailed hawk

Adult mockingbirds can fall victim to birds of prey such as the great horned
owl, screech owl and sharp-shinned hawk, though their tenacious behavior makes
them less likely to be captured. Scrub-jays also have killed and eaten
mockingbirds. Snakes rarely capture incubating females. Fledgelings have been
prey to domestic cats, red-tailed hawks, and crows. Eggs and nestlings are
consumed by blue jays, fish crows and American crows, red-tailed hawks,
swallow-tailed kites, snakes, squirrels, and cats. Blowfly larvae and
Haemoproteus have been found in Florida and Arizona populations,
respectively.[18]

Winter storms limit the expansion of mockingbirds in their range. The storms
have played a role in the declining of the populations in Ohio (where it has
since recovered), Michigan, Minnesota and likely in Quebec. Dry seasons also
affect the mockingbird populations in Arizona.[18]


INTELLIGENCE[EDIT]

In a paper published in 2009, researchers found that mockingbirds were able to
recall an individual human who, earlier in the study, had approached and
threatened the mockingbirds' nest. Researchers had one participant stand near a
mockingbird nest and touch it, while others avoided the nest. Later, the
mockingbirds recognized the intruder and exhibited defensive behavior, while
ignoring the other individuals.[52]


ADAPTATION TO URBAN HABITATS[EDIT]


In the urban habitat at Durham, North Carolina

The northern mockingbird is a species that is found in both urban and rural
habitats. There are now more northern mockingbirds living in urban habitats than
non-urban environments, so they are consequently known as an urban-positive
species.[53] Biologists have long questioned how northern mockingbirds adapt to
a novel environment in cities, and whether they fall into the typical ecological
traps that are common for urban-dwelling birds.[53] A comparative study between
an urban dwelling population and a rural dwelling one shows that the apparent
survival is higher for individuals in the urban habitats. Lower food
availability and travel costs may account for the higher mortality rate in rural
habitats.[54] Urban birds are more likely to return to the nest where they had
successfully bred the previous year and avoid those where breeding success was
low. One explanation for this phenomenon is that urban environments are more
predictable than non-urban ones, as the site fidelity among urban birds prevents
them from falling into ecological traps.[54] Mockingbirds are also able to
utilize artificial lighting in order to feed nestlings in urban areas such as
residential neighborhoods into the night, in contrast to those that do not nest
near those areas.[55] The adaptation of the mockingbird in urban habitats has
led it to become more susceptible to lead poisoning in Baltimore and Washington,
D.C. populations.[18]


IN CULTURE[EDIT]


Painting by John James Audubon

This bird features in the title and central metaphor of the novel To Kill a
Mockingbird, by Harper Lee. In that novel, mockingbirds are portrayed as
innocent and generous, and two of the major characters, Atticus Finch and Miss
Maudie, say it is a sin to kill a mockingbird because "they don't do one thing
for us but make music for us to enjoy. They don't eat up people's gardens, don't
nest in corncribs, they don't do one thing but sing their hearts out for
us."[56]

The song of the northern mockingbird inspired many American folk songs of the
mid-19th century, such as "Listen to the Mocking Bird".[57]

Thomas Jefferson had several pet mockingbirds, including a bird named
"Dick".[58][59]

In the fictional Neighborhood of Make-Believe on Mister Rogers' Neighborhood,
one of King Friday's "pets" is a wooden northern mockingbird on a stick, which
he refers to by the scientific name Mimus polyglottos.[60][61]


STATE BIRD[EDIT]

The northern mockingbird is the state bird of Arkansas,[62] Florida,[63]
Mississippi,[64] Tennessee,[65] and Texas,[66] and previously the state bird of
South Carolina.[67]


SEE ALSO[EDIT]

 * List of birds of Puerto Rico


REFERENCES[EDIT]

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EXTERNAL LINKS[EDIT]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Northern mockingbird.
Wikispecies has information related to Mimus polyglottos.
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article
"Mocking-bird".
 * Northern Mockingbird Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
 * "Northern Mockingbird media". Internet Bird Collection.
 * Northern Mockingbird – Mimus polyglottos – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification
   InfoCenter
 * Learn Bird Songs: Songs of the Northern Mockingbird from the Lang Elliott
   website Learnbirdsongs.com
 * Northern Mockingbird Bird Sound at Florida Museum of Natural History
 * Beach, Chandler B., ed. (1914). "Mockingbird" . The New Student's Reference
   Work . Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co.
 * Northern Mockingbird photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)






Taxon identifiers
 * Wikidata: Q829683
 * Wikispecies: Mimus polyglottos
 * ABA: normoc
 * ADW: Mimus_polyglottos
 * Avibase: 7EFF698DC564CF69
 * BirdLife: 22711026
 * BOLD: 9726
 * CoL: 43HT9
 * BOW: normoc
 * eBird: normoc
 * EPPO: MIMUPO
 * Euring: 10670
 * Fossilworks: 368741
 * GBIF: 5231677
 * GNAB: northern-mockingbird
 * IBC: northern-mockingbird-mimus-polyglottos
 * iNaturalist: 14886
 * IRMNG: 10188479
 * ITIS: 178620
 * IUCN: 22711026
 * NatureServe: 2.100932
 * NBN: NHMSYS0000530484
 * NCBI: 60713
 * Neotropical: normoc
 * Xeno-canto: Mimus-polyglottos

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_mockingbird"

Thank you for reading our educational material for the Northern Mockingbird. We
hope you found these Northern Mockingbird facts helpful, and that the
information on the Northern Mockingbird habitat, Northern Mockingbird Taxonomy,
Northern Mockingbird Description, Northern Mockingbird Habitat, Northern
Mockingbird Behavior, Northern Mockingbird Diet, Northern Mockingbird Breeding,
Northern Mockingbird Mating, Northern Mockingbird Song, Northern Mockingbird
Calls, Northern Mockingbird Predators, Northern Mockingbird Intelligence,
Northern Mockingbird State Bird, were helpful.


HAVE MORE QUESTIONS ABOUT THE NORTHERN MOCKINGBIRD? TRY OUR FAQ:


BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL INTERACTIONS

Behavior
Social Behavior
Territorial Defense
Social Interactions
Sleeping Habits
Sleep Patterns



SONGS AND COMMUNICATION

Songs
Communication
Song Learning
Voice Mimicry
Singing Behavior
Song Recognition
Recording Songs
Evolution of Songs
Song Dialects
Song Structure
Song Variation



MATING AND REPRODUCTION:

Mating Behavior
Courtship Displays
Mating Rituals
Egg Laying Process
Reproductive Success
Sexual Selection
Mating System
Egg Coloration
Parental Investment
Mating Calls



NESTING:

Nesting Habits
Nest Building
Nestling Development
Nest Predation
Egg Incubation
Feeding Chicks in Nests
Nest Parasites and Nests
Nest Abandonment
Nest Site Selection
Nest Failure
Nest Parasitism
Nest Construction
Nest Success
Nest Defense Mechanisms



TERRITORIALITY:

Territory
Territorial Calls
Territorial Boundaries
Territory Size
Territorial Defense



MIGRATION AND RANGE:

Migration Patterns
Migration Routes
Timing of Migration
Range
Winter Range



HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT:

Northern Habitat
Urban Adaptation
Environmental Impact
Habitat Loss and Populations
Habitat Fragmentation and Conservation
Microhabitat Preference
Urban Populations
Effects of Urban Noise