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NOTE: www.kostic.niu.edu/ CHANGED TO www.niu.edu/kostic OR
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CLICK> Nature and Thermo
Professor Kostic
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Professor Kostic





KELVIN'S THEORY OF HEAT

http://Carnot.MKostic.com *** http://Clausius.MKostic.com ***
http://Kelvin.MKostic.com


"If Clausius and Kelvin were "fathers of thermodynamics" then Sadi Carnot was
the "grandfather" or better yet,
Sadi Carnot was the "FOREFATHER of Thermodynamics-to-become" [M Kostic, 2023
October 29]

See 2LT * Selected Presentations at Speaking, Lecturing, and Media
Also,  Proofs of the Fundamental Laws *  Carnot Cycle Efficiency is
Fundamentally Misplaced *
See also: > Sadi Carnot's Reflections <*> Clausius Theory of Heat <*> Kelvin
Theory of Heat <

NEW: Reasoning and Logical Proofs of the Fundamental Laws: “No Hope” for the
Challengers of the Second Law of Thermodynamics by Milivoje Kostic. Entropy
2023, 25(7), 1106; https://doi.org/10.3390/e25071106  *
Chapters 5 & 6 are devoted to  Sadi Carnot's work and contributions: Reflections
on the “Sadi Carnot’s Réflexions” 

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin  .... Lord Kelvin (William Thomson)

More at: On the Dynamical Theory of Heat by Lord Kelvin (William Thomson)

Also: William Thomson (1824 - 1907) - Biography - MacTutor History of
Mathematics (st-andrews.ac.uk) 


Note, Joule's "the mechanical equivalent of heat" versus Carnot's "motive power
of heat."




"Entropy is associated with stored-heat within a material system, i.e. its
thermal energy. It is an integral measure of thermal energy per absolute
temperature of a system. As heat is generated due to dissipation of any work
potential to heat, the entropy is produced. However, if heat is converted to
work (like in heat engines), the thermal energy is reduced while transferred to
a lower-temperature thermal reservoir, however, the entropy (as ratio of thermal
heat to absolute temperature) will not be reduced but conserved in ideal,
reversible processes (Qrev/T=const, Carnot Ratio Equality), or even the entropy
will be produced (generated) in real (irreversible) processes for the amount of
dissipated work-potential to stored heat (or thermal energy) per absolute
temperature, regardless that the thermal energy is reduced (converted to work).
Therefore, the entropy is always produced, locally and thus integrally or
globally, and there is no way to destroy entropy, since it will be against the
forced energy transfer from higher to lower potential  [Kostic: 2008 & 2011 &
2014 & 2020 & 2023]. ."

"Reflections on the Caloric Theory and Thermal Energy as a Distinguished Part of
the Internal Energy

Nature of heat was a mystery for a long time. Lavoisier proposed that "heat is a
subtle, weightless substance called caloric." Being a substance, the
conservation of caloric was a central assumption, long before the energy
conservation was established. Furthermore, the kinetic theory existed in the
late eighteenth century that could explain the heat and other thermal phenomena.
Regardless of ingenious developments, the Caloric Theory has been discredited
since the caloric was not obviously conserved during heat generation processes,
like drilling, and similar. In modern times, there is a tendency by some
scientists to unduly discredit "thermal energy"as being indistinguishable from
other internal energy types. Denying the existence of thermal energy is the same
as denying the existence of its transfer (heat transfer). Some others consider
the Thermodynamic internal energy to be the thermal energy, although the former
represents all energy types stored as the kinetic and potential energies of the
constituent microstructure, namely, the thermal and mechanical elastic energies
in simple compressible substances, in addition to the chemical and nuclear
internal energies. In a more complex system-structure there may be more energy
types. The stored system heat increases the system's thermal energy which is
distinguished from the system's internal, mechanical (elastic) energy. For
example, the heating or compressing an ideal gas with the same amount of energy
will result in the same temperatures and internal energies, but different
states, with different volumes and entropies, and similar for other material
substances. Reversible heat transfer and caloric heat transfer, without work
interactions, are introduced as limiting processes of heat-work interactions. It
is reasoned and deduced here [Reflections], that the thermal energy is
distinguishable, regardless of its coupling with the other internal energy
forms, and thus paves the way to further illuminate other critical concepts,
including Thermodynamic entropy and the Second Law of energy degradation and
entropy generation.

mechanical equivalent of heat

"Nothing occurs locally, nor globally in the universe, without mass-energy
exchange/conversion and entropy production. 

It is crystal-clear (to me) that all confusions related to the far-reaching
fundamental Laws of Thermodynamics, and especially the Second Law (Abstract &
FULL paper), are due to the lack of their genuine and subtle comprehension." >
Sadi Carnot's Reflections <*> Clausius Theory of Heat <*> Kelvin Theory of Heat
<



 Elusive Nature of Entropy, Nature of Thermal and Mechanical Energy Transfer and
Reflections on the Caloric Theory and Thermal Energy.




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