nautil.us
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Submitted URL: https://newsletter.nautil.us/ss/c/u001.G-4HeC9E-eKQSwvTqggVUnY-dSZZtqykdRW83Tg8UN-fnWIvtjSuo4xnrPa3SlAu9AKbVTpQgamaY5EO7Blyu-...
Effective URL: https://nautil.us/how-music-hijacks-our-perception-of-time-234738/?utm_campaign=website&utm_medium=email&utm_sourc...
Submission: On October 18 via manual from FR — Scanned from US
Effective URL: https://nautil.us/how-music-hijacks-our-perception-of-time-234738/?utm_campaign=website&utm_medium=email&utm_sourc...
Submission: On October 18 via manual from FR — Scanned from US
Form analysis 6 forms found in the DOM
GET https://nautil.us/
<form role="search" method="get" class="search-inp-wrap responsive-search" action="https://nautil.us/">
<label>
<span class="screen-reader-text"></span>
<input type="search" class="form-control aa-input" placeholder="Search Nautilus..." value="" name="s" autocomplete="off" spellcheck="false" role="combobox" aria-autocomplete="list" aria-expanded="false" aria-owns="algolia-autocomplete-listbox-0"
dir="auto" style="">
<pre aria-hidden="true"
style="position: absolute; visibility: hidden; white-space: pre; font-family: "FreightSans Pro Book", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 22px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; word-spacing: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-rendering: auto; text-transform: none;"></pre>
</label>
<button type="submit" class="search-submit" value="Search">
<img src="https://nautil.us/wp-content/themes/nautilus-block-theme/images/icons/search-dark.svg" class="icon-search" alt="search icon" width="28" height="28">
</button>
</form>GET https://nautil.us/
<form role="search" method="get" class="search-form" action="https://nautil.us/">
<label>
<span class="screen-reader-text">Search for:</span>
<input type="search" class="search-field aa-input" placeholder="Search …" value="" name="s" autocomplete="off" spellcheck="false" role="combobox" aria-autocomplete="list" aria-expanded="false" aria-owns="algolia-autocomplete-listbox-2" dir="auto"
style="">
<pre aria-hidden="true"
style="position: absolute; visibility: hidden; white-space: pre; font-family: "FreightSans Pro Book", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; word-spacing: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-rendering: auto; text-transform: none;"></pre>
</label>
<input type="submit" class="search-submit" value="Search">
</form>POST
<form enctype="multipart/form-data" method="post" class="frm-show-form frm_js_validate frm_ajax_submit frm_pro_form " id="form_speedbump-block-default-form" data-token="95eb110757077988b62f603a91a3a585" style="overflow-x: visible;">
<div class="frm_form_fields ">
<fieldset>
<legend class="frm_screen_reader">NL – Article speedbump</legend>
<div class="frm_fields_container">
<input type="hidden" name="frm_action" value="create">
<input type="hidden" name="form_id" value="86">
<input type="hidden" name="frm_hide_fields_86" id="frm_hide_fields_86" value="">
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<input type="hidden" id="frm_submit_entry_86" name="frm_submit_entry_86" value="351434b53e"><input type="hidden" name="_wp_http_referer" value="/how-music-hijacks-our-perception-of-time-234738/"><input type="hidden" name="item_meta[750]"
id="field_js_utm_id86" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[751]" id="field_js_utm_source1" value="nautilus-newsletter">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[753]" id="field_js_utm_medium1" value="email">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[752]" id="field_js_utm_campaign1" value="website">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[754]" id="field_js_utm_term1" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[755]" id="field_js_utm_content1" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[757]" id="field_nl_lp_rid86" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[758]" id="field_ucvvj" value="09:42:21" data-frmval="09:42:21">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[759]" id="field_7xafb" value="4492" data-frmval="4492">
<div id="frm_field_810_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_none_container">
<label for="g-recaptcha-response" id="field_ra8px_label" class="frm_primary_label">Captcha <span class="frm_required" aria-hidden="true"></span>
</label>
<div id="field_ra8px" class="frm-g-recaptcha" data-sitekey="6LcIGuUpAAAAABhqlni-ytDG0olfnt-0G0s_5u09" data-size="invisible" data-theme="light" data-rid="0">
<div class="grecaptcha-badge" data-style="bottomright"
style="width: 256px; height: 60px; display: block; transition: right 0.3s; position: fixed; bottom: 14px; right: -186px; box-shadow: gray 0px 0px 5px; border-radius: 2px; overflow: hidden;">
<div class="grecaptcha-logo"><iframe title="reCAPTCHA" width="256" height="60" role="presentation" name="a-w28i3duqb5ly" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"
sandbox="allow-forms allow-popups allow-same-origin allow-scripts allow-top-navigation allow-modals allow-popups-to-escape-sandbox allow-storage-access-by-user-activation"
src="https://www.google.com/recaptcha/api2/anchor?ar=1&k=6LcIGuUpAAAAABhqlni-ytDG0olfnt-0G0s_5u09&co=aHR0cHM6Ly9uYXV0aWwudXM6NDQz&hl=en&v=lqsTZ5beIbCkK4uGEGv9JmUR&theme=light&size=invisible&cb=nrerlag87paq"></iframe>
</div>
<div class="grecaptcha-error"></div><textarea id="g-recaptcha-response" name="g-recaptcha-response" class="g-recaptcha-response"
style="width: 250px; height: 40px; border: 1px solid rgb(193, 193, 193); margin: 10px 25px; padding: 0px; resize: none; display: none;"></textarea>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="frm_field_742_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_required_field frm_none_container frm_two_thirds">
<label for="field_y56x4" id="field_y56x4_label" class="frm_primary_label">Email <span class="frm_required" aria-hidden="true">*</span>
</label>
<input type="email" id="field_y56x4" name="item_meta[742]" value="" autocomplete="email" placeholder="Enter your email" data-reqmsg="Email cannot be blank." aria-required="true" data-invmsg="Email is invalid" aria-invalid="false">
</div>
<div id="frm_field_743_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_third">
<div class="frm_submit frm_third">
<button class="frm_button_submit frm_final_submit" type="submit" formnovalidate="formnovalidate">Sign up for free</button>
</div>
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="item_key" value="">
<div class="frm__655bb6eca1eeb">
<label for="frm_email_86"> If you are human, leave this field blank. </label>
<input id="frm_email_86" type="text" class="frm_verify" name="frm__655bb6eca1eeb" value="" autocomplete="off">
</div>
<input name="frm_state" type="hidden" value="KlvCIRs9PrcBc/SyV6Q9289Qc4VB0Ep4qv9hzBNdCZj6XXBX6wl+oa1lxeu/bsk/lFT36iN86waAkSC6QSrpwzzc26VYYXSksY4ForBkgidZAYlj5W8xdGzVexfVj27aUCaQ0QgcowTrKUXzMxpk5tZwcxO3dhMqg7Fxh6OQmKV+R6bEbfJUsyoJm2JFd5lO">
</div>
</fieldset>
</div>
</form>POST
<form enctype="multipart/form-data" method="post" class="frm-show-form frm_js_validate frm_ajax_submit frm_pro_form " id="form_newsletter-signup-in-page-mobile" data-token="95eb110757077988b62f603a91a3a585" style="overflow-x: visible;">
<div class="frm_form_fields ">
<fieldset>
<legend class="frm_screen_reader">NL – In Page Mobile</legend>
<div class="frm_fields_container">
<input type="hidden" name="frm_action" value="create">
<input type="hidden" name="form_id" value="60">
<input type="hidden" name="frm_hide_fields_60" id="frm_hide_fields_60" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="form_key" value="newsletter-signup-in-page-mobile">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[0]" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="frm_submit_entry_60" name="frm_submit_entry_60" value="351434b53e"><input type="hidden" name="_wp_http_referer" value="/how-music-hijacks-our-perception-of-time-234738/">
<div id="frm_field_463_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_required_field frm_top_container">
<label for="field_email2" id="field_email2_label" class="frm_primary_label">Email: <span class="frm_required">*</span>
</label>
<input type="email" id="field_email2" name="item_meta[463]" value="" placeholder="Enter your email address" data-reqmsg="Email: cannot be blank." aria-required="true" data-invmsg="This is not a valid email." aria-invalid="false">
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[465]" id="field_js_utm_id3" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[466]" id="field_js_utm_source3" value="nautilus-newsletter">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[467]" id="field_js_utm_medium3" value="email">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[468]" id="field_js_utm_campaign3" value="website">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[469]" id="field_js_utm_term3" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[470]" id="field_js_utm_content3" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[471]" id="field_nl_lp_rid2" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[531]" id="field_xyc35" value="09:42:21" data-frmval="09:42:21">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[537]" id="field_yntmy" value="3075" data-frmval="3075">
<div id="frm_field_808_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_none_container">
<label for="g-recaptcha-response" id="field_gnmab_label" class="frm_primary_label">Captcha <span class="frm_required" aria-hidden="true"></span>
</label>
<div id="field_gnmab" class="frm-g-recaptcha" data-sitekey="6LcIGuUpAAAAABhqlni-ytDG0olfnt-0G0s_5u09" data-size="invisible" data-theme="light" data-rid="1">
<div class="grecaptcha-badge" data-style="none" style="width: 256px; height: 60px; position: fixed; visibility: hidden;">
<div class="grecaptcha-logo"><iframe title="reCAPTCHA" width="256" height="60" role="presentation" name="a-6gw8yex1nnv0" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"
sandbox="allow-forms allow-popups allow-same-origin allow-scripts allow-top-navigation allow-modals allow-popups-to-escape-sandbox allow-storage-access-by-user-activation"
src="https://www.google.com/recaptcha/api2/anchor?ar=1&k=6LcIGuUpAAAAABhqlni-ytDG0olfnt-0G0s_5u09&co=aHR0cHM6Ly9uYXV0aWwudXM6NDQz&hl=en&v=lqsTZ5beIbCkK4uGEGv9JmUR&theme=light&size=invisible&cb=rx9ygmo4s0nj"></iframe>
</div>
<div class="grecaptcha-error"></div><textarea id="g-recaptcha-response-1" name="g-recaptcha-response" class="g-recaptcha-response"
style="width: 250px; height: 40px; border: 1px solid rgb(193, 193, 193); margin: 10px 25px; padding: 0px; resize: none; display: none;"></textarea>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="frm_field_782_container" class="frm_form_field form-field ">
<div class="frm_submit">
<button class="frm_button_submit frm_final_submit" type="submit" formnovalidate="formnovalidate">Sign up for free</button>
</div>
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="item_key" value="">
<div class="frm__655bb6eca1eeb">
<label for="frm_email_60"> If you are human, leave this field blank. </label>
<input id="frm_email_60" type="text" class="frm_verify" name="frm__655bb6eca1eeb" value="" autocomplete="off">
</div>
<input name="frm_state" type="hidden" value="KlvCIRs9PrcBc/SyV6Q9289Qc4VB0Ep4qv9hzBNdCZj6XXBX6wl+oa1lxeu/bsk/lFT36iN86waAkSC6QSrpwzzc26VYYXSksY4ForBkgidZAYlj5W8xdGzVexfVj27aUCaQ0QgcowTrKUXzMxpk5tZwcxO3dhMqg7Fxh6OQmKV+R6bEbfJUsyoJm2JFd5lO">
</div>
</fieldset>
</div>
</form>POST
<form enctype="multipart/form-data" method="post" class="frm-show-form frm_js_validate frm_ajax_submit frm_pro_form " id="form_newsletter-signup-footer" data-token="95eb110757077988b62f603a91a3a585" style="overflow-x: visible;">
<div class="frm_form_fields ">
<fieldset>
<legend class="frm_screen_reader">NL – Footer</legend>
<div class="frm_fields_container">
<input type="hidden" name="frm_action" value="create">
<input type="hidden" name="form_id" value="61">
<input type="hidden" name="frm_hide_fields_61" id="frm_hide_fields_61" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="form_key" value="newsletter-signup-footer">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[0]" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="frm_submit_entry_61" name="frm_submit_entry_61" value="351434b53e"><input type="hidden" name="_wp_http_referer" value="/how-music-hijacks-our-perception-of-time-234738/">
<div id="frm_field_472_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_required_field frm_top_container">
<label for="field_email3" id="field_email3_label" class="frm_primary_label">Email: <span class="frm_required">*</span>
</label>
<input type="email" id="field_email3" name="item_meta[472]" value="" placeholder="Enter your email address" data-reqmsg="Email: cannot be blank." aria-required="true" data-invmsg="This is not a valid email." aria-invalid="false">
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[474]" id="field_js_utm_id4" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[475]" id="field_js_utm_source4" value="nautilus-newsletter">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[476]" id="field_js_utm_medium4" value="email">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[477]" id="field_js_utm_campaign4" value="website">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[478]" id="field_js_utm_term4" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[479]" id="field_js_utm_content4" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[480]" id="field_nl_lp_rid3" value="">
<div id="frm_field_671_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_top_container">
<div id="field_6tsy5_label" class="frm_primary_label">Name <span class="frm_required" aria-hidden="true"></span>
</div>
<fieldset aria-labelledby="field_6tsy5_label">
<legend class="frm_screen_reader frm_hidden"> Name </legend>
<div class="frm_combo_inputs_container" id="frm_combo_inputs_container_671" data-name-layout="first_last">
<div id="frm_field_671-first_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_form_subfield-first frm6" data-sub-field-name="first">
<label for="field_6tsy5_first" class="frm_screen_reader frm_hidden"> First </label>
<input type="text" id="field_6tsy5_first" value="" name="item_meta[671][first]" data-invmsg="Name is invalid" aria-invalid="false">
<div class="frm_description" id="frm_field_671_first_desc">First</div>
</div>
<div id="frm_field_671-last_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_form_subfield-last frm6" data-sub-field-name="last">
<label for="field_6tsy5_last" class="frm_screen_reader frm_hidden"> Last </label>
<input type="text" id="field_6tsy5_last" value="" name="item_meta[671][last]" data-invmsg="Name is invalid" aria-invalid="false">
<div class="frm_description" id="frm_field_671_last_desc">Last</div>
</div>
</div>
</fieldset>
</div>
<div id="frm_field_804_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_none_container">
<label for="g-recaptcha-response" id="field_iwpu3_label" class="frm_primary_label">Captcha <span class="frm_required" aria-hidden="true"></span>
</label>
<div id="field_iwpu3" class="frm-g-recaptcha" data-sitekey="6LcIGuUpAAAAABhqlni-ytDG0olfnt-0G0s_5u09" data-size="invisible" data-theme="light" data-rid="2">
<div class="grecaptcha-badge" data-style="none" style="width: 256px; height: 60px; position: fixed; visibility: hidden;">
<div class="grecaptcha-logo"><iframe title="reCAPTCHA" width="256" height="60" role="presentation" name="a-g2sd1dfyrm2r" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"
sandbox="allow-forms allow-popups allow-same-origin allow-scripts allow-top-navigation allow-modals allow-popups-to-escape-sandbox allow-storage-access-by-user-activation"
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</div>
<div class="grecaptcha-error"></div><textarea id="g-recaptcha-response-2" name="g-recaptcha-response" class="g-recaptcha-response"
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</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="frm_field_741_container" class="frm_form_field form-field ">
<div class="frm_submit">
<button class="frm_button_submit frm_final_submit" type="submit" formnovalidate="formnovalidate">Sign up for free</button>
</div>
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="item_key" value="">
<div class="frm__655bb6eca1eeb">
<label for="frm_email_61"> If you are human, leave this field blank. </label>
<input id="frm_email_61" type="text" class="frm_verify" name="frm__655bb6eca1eeb" value="" autocomplete="off">
</div>
<input name="frm_state" type="hidden" value="KlvCIRs9PrcBc/SyV6Q9289Qc4VB0Ep4qv9hzBNdCZj6XXBX6wl+oa1lxeu/bsk/lFT36iN86waAkSC6QSrpwzzc26VYYXSksY4ForBkgidZAYlj5W8xdGzVexfVj27aUCaQ0QgcowTrKUXzMxpk5tZwcxO3dhMqg7Fxh6OQmKV+R6bEbfJUsyoJm2JFd5lO">
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</fieldset>
</div>
</form>POST
<form enctype="multipart/form-data" method="post" class="frm-show-form frm_js_validate frm_ajax_submit frm_pro_form " id="form_newsletter-signup-emailgate" data-token="95eb110757077988b62f603a91a3a585" style="overflow-x: visible;">
<div class="frm_form_fields ">
<fieldset>
<legend class="frm_screen_reader">NL – Emailgate</legend>
<div class="frm_fields_container">
<input type="hidden" name="frm_action" value="create">
<input type="hidden" name="form_id" value="74">
<input type="hidden" name="frm_hide_fields_74" id="frm_hide_fields_74" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="form_key" value="newsletter-signup-emailgate">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[0]" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="frm_submit_entry_74" name="frm_submit_entry_74" value="351434b53e"><input type="hidden" name="_wp_http_referer" value="/how-music-hijacks-our-perception-of-time-234738/">
<div id="frm_field_602_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_required_field frm_none_container">
<label for="field_email6" id="field_email6_label" class="frm_primary_label">
<span class="frm_required">*</span>
</label>
<input type="email" id="field_email6" name="item_meta[602]" value="" style="width:302px" placeholder="Enter your email address" data-reqmsg="This field cannot be blank." aria-required="true" data-invmsg="This is not a valid email."
class="auto_width" aria-invalid="false">
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[604]" id="field_js_utm_id9" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[605]" id="field_js_utm_source9" value="nautilus-newsletter">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[606]" id="field_js_utm_medium9" value="email">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[607]" id="field_js_utm_campaign9" value="website">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[608]" id="field_js_utm_term9" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[609]" id="field_js_utm_content9" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[610]" id="field_nl_lp_rid6" value="">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[611]" id="field_2926n3" value="09:42:21" data-frmval="09:42:21">
<input type="hidden" name="item_meta[612]" id="field_md9f43" value="5455" data-frmval="5455">
<div id="frm_field_802_container" class="frm_form_field form-field frm_none_container">
<label for="g-recaptcha-response" id="field_kqr7t_label" class="frm_primary_label">Captcha <span class="frm_required" aria-hidden="true"></span>
</label>
<div id="field_kqr7t" class="frm-g-recaptcha" data-sitekey="6LcIGuUpAAAAABhqlni-ytDG0olfnt-0G0s_5u09" data-size="invisible" data-theme="light" data-rid="3">
<div class="grecaptcha-badge" data-style="none" style="width: 256px; height: 60px; position: fixed; visibility: hidden;">
<div class="grecaptcha-logo"><iframe title="reCAPTCHA" width="256" height="60" role="presentation" name="a-hdw9t4nussnf" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"
sandbox="allow-forms allow-popups allow-same-origin allow-scripts allow-top-navigation allow-modals allow-popups-to-escape-sandbox allow-storage-access-by-user-activation"
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</div>
<div class="grecaptcha-error"></div><textarea id="g-recaptcha-response-3" name="g-recaptcha-response" class="g-recaptcha-response"
style="width: 250px; height: 40px; border: 1px solid rgb(193, 193, 193); margin: 10px 25px; padding: 0px; resize: none; display: none;"></textarea>
</div><iframe style="display: none;"></iframe>
</div>
</div>
<div id="frm_field_756_container" class="frm_form_field form-field ">
<div class="frm_submit">
<button class="frm_button_submit frm_final_submit" type="submit" formnovalidate="formnovalidate">Sign up for free</button>
</div>
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="item_key" value="">
<div class="frm__655bb6eca1eeb">
<label for="frm_email_74"> If you are human, leave this field blank. </label>
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HOW MUSIC HIJACKS OUR PERCEPTION OF TIME
A composer details how music works its magic on our brains.
* By Jonathan Berger
* January 13, 2014
* Illustration by Sterling Hundley
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One evening, some 40 years ago, I got lost in time. I was at a performance of
Schubert’s String Quintet in C major. During the second movement I had the
unnerving feeling that time was literally grinding to a halt. The sensation was
powerful, visceral, overwhelming. It was a life-changing moment, or, as it felt
at the time, a life-changing eon.
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It has been my goal ever since to compose music that usurps the perceived flow
of time and commandeers the sense of how time passes. Although I’ve learned to
manipulate subjective time, I still stand in awe of Schubert’s unparalleled
power. Nearly two centuries ago, the composer anticipated the neurological
underpinnings of time perception that science has underscored in the past few
decades.
The human brain, we have learned, adjusts and recalibrates temporal perception.
Our ability to encode and decode sequential information, to integrate and
segregate simultaneous signals, is fundamental to human survival. It allows us
to find our place in, and navigate, our physical world. But music also
demonstrates that time perception is inherently subjective—and an integral part
of our lives. “For the time element in music is single,” wrote Thomas Mann in
his novel, The Magic Mountain. “Into a section of mortal time music pours
itself, thereby inexpressibly enhancing and ennobling what it fills.”
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We conceive of time as a continuum, but we perceive it in discretized units—or,
rather, as discretized units. It has long been held that, just as objective time
is dictated by clocks, subjective time (barring external influences) aligns to
physiological metronomes. Music creates discrete temporal units but ones that do
not typically align with the discrete temporal units in which we measure time.
Rather, music embodies (or, rather, is embodied within) a separate,
quasi-independent concept of time, able to distort or negate “clock-time.” This
other time creates a parallel temporal world in which we are prone to lose
ourselves, or at least to lose all semblance of objective time.
In recent years, numerous studies have shown how music hijacks our relationship
with everyday time. For instance, more drinks are sold in bars when with
slow-tempo music, which seems to make the bar a more enjoyable environment, one
in which patrons want to linger—and order another round.1 Similarly, consumers
spend 38 percent more time in the grocery store when the background music is
slow.2 Familiarity is also a factor. Shoppers perceive longer shopping times
when they are familiar with the background music in the store, but actually
spend more time shopping when the music is novel.3 Novel music is perceived as
more pleasurable, making the time seem to pass quicker, and so shoppers stay in
the stores longer than they may imagine.
Perhaps the clearest evidence of musical hijacking is this: In 2004, the Royal
Automobile Club Foundation for Motoring deemed Wagner’s Ride of the Valkyrie the
most dangerous music to listen to while driving. It is not so much the
distraction, but the substitution of the frenzied tempo of the music that
challenges drivers’ normal sense of speed—and the objective cue of the
speedometer—and causes them to speed.
While music usurps our sensation of time, technology can play a role in altering
music’s power to hijack our perception. The advent of audio recording not only
changed the way music was disseminated, it changed time perception for
generations. Thomas Edison’s cylinder recordings—heard below—held about four
minutes of music.
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This technological constraint set a standard that dictated the duration of
popular music long after that constraint was surpassed.4 In fact, this average
duration persists in popular music as the modus operandi today. This, in turn,
influenced the way music of longer duration was heard. The implicit effect on
the classical music industry was disastrous. To put it bluntly, the subjective
perception of the length of time withered the collective attention span for
listening to music.5
> The Royal Automobile Club deemed Wagner’s Ride of the Valkyrie the most
> dangerous music to listen to while driving.
Neuroscience gives us insights into how music creates an alternate temporal
universe. During periods of intense perceptual engagement, such as being
enraptured by music, activity in the prefrontal cortex, which generally focuses
on introspection, shuts down. The sensory cortex becomes the focal area of
processing and the “self-related” cortex essentially switches off. As
neuroscientist Ilan Goldberg describes, “the term ‘losing yourself’ receives
here a clear neuronal correlate.” Rather than enabling perceptual awareness, the
role of the self-related prefrontal cortex is reflective, evaluating the
significance of the music to the self. However, during intense moments, when
time seems to stop, or rather, not exist at all, a selfless, Zen-like state can
occur.6
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While the sublime sense of being lost in time is relatively rare, the distortion
of perceived time is commonplace and routine. Broadly speaking, the brain
processes timespans in two ways, one in which an explicit estimate is made
regarding the duration of a particular stimulus—perhaps a sound or an ephemeral
image—and the second, involving the implicit timespan between stimuli. These
processes involve both memory and attention, which modulate the perception of
time passing, depending upon how occupied or stimulated we are. Hence time can
“fly” when we are occupied, or seem to stand still when we are waiting for the
water in the kettle to boil. Unlike the literal loss of “self” that occurs
during intense perceptual engagement, the subjective perception of elongated or
compressed time is related to self-referential processing. An object—whether
image or sound—moving toward you is perceived as longer in duration than the
same object that is not moving, or that is receding from you. A looming or
receding object triggers increased activation in the anterior insula and
anterior cingulate cortices—areas important for subjective awareness.
The directionality of musical melody and gesture evoke similar percepts of
temporal dilation. The goal-oriented nature of music provides a framework in
which a sense of motion is transposed to sonic structures, and the sensation of
“looming” and “receding” can be simulated independently of relative spatial
orientation. The subjectivity of time perception can be grounding and
self-affirming—a source of great pleasure, or, conversely, able to create a
state of disassociation with one’s self—a state of transcendence.7
> Time can “fly” when we are occupied, or seem to stand still when we are
> waiting for the water in the kettle to boil.
Considering the composer’s goal of distorting time perception, musical time is
notated with remarkable imprecision and ambiguity. Composers, more often than
not, rely upon qualitative rather than quantitative directives to inform
performers of intended tempo. And if the vagaries of such terms as Adagietto
(somewhat slow), or Lentissimo (slower than slow) are not ambiguous enough,
terms such as Allegro ma non troppo (fast, but not too fast), or terms that
connote speed through emotion such as Allegro appassionato, Bravura, or Agitato,
or terms that confuse complexity with speed, such as Tempo semplice, oblige the
performer to imagine temporality from the composer’s perspective through
guesswork. My favorite temporal marking is the term Tempo rubato, literally
“stolen time,” in which duration is added to one event at the expense of
another. Long after German inventor Johann Maelzel patented the metronome in
1815, composers continued to persistently avoid strict measures of time in their
scores, instead relying primarily on adjectival description.
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While the manipulation of perceptual time is a pervasive aspect of music,
particular composers, including Anton Bruckner, famous for his hour-plus
symphonies, and Olivier Messiaen, took the warping of subjective time to
extremes. Anton Webern even fooled himself, grossly overestimating the duration
of his own 7-minute-long Variations for Orchestra as lasting 20 minutes!
But it is Schubert, more than any other composer, who succeeded in radically
commandeering temporal perception. Nowhere is this powerful control of time
perception more forceful than in the String Quintet. Schubert composed the
four-movement work in 1828, during the feverish last two months of his life. (He
died at age 31.) In the work, he turns contrasting distortions of perceptual
time into musical structure. Following the opening melody in the first Allegro
ma non troppo movement, the second Adagio movement seems to move slowly and be
far longer than it really is, then hastens and shortens before returning to a
perception of long and slow. The Scherzo that follows reverses the pattern,
creating the perception of brevity and speed, followed by a section that feels
longer and slower, before returning to a percept of short and fast. The conflict
of objective and subjective time is so forcefully felt in the work that it
ultimately becomes unified in terms of structural organization.
The following is an audio tour through key moments in the work, demonstrating
the extraordinary degree to which Schubert masterfully manipulates subjective
time.
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From the outset, the opening melody stutters against a motionless drone. It is a
single note repeated five times, venturing to a lone new tone and settling back
from where it came in an eerie aura of aimless meandering and stasis.
This long-short-long rhythmic pattern obsessively permeates the opening section.
Each time the motive repeats, the pitch repetition, resistant to change,
hesitatingly reaches outward. It is as if the motive is trying to liberate
itself from its static state, yet uncommitted to a clear path. This struggle to
move occurs against a laboriously slow and unwaveringly steady harmonic
progression.
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The nearly static opening section of the second movement ends with an exquisite
shock by another pitch repetition, but this time with the harmonic underpinning
shifting abruptly, as if we are thrust through an open door into a new world.
This is technically referred to as an enharmonic pivot—in which a musical pitch
with a specific function is redefined—renamed and re-contextualized. Here, G
sharp, the third degree of E major, becomes A flat, the third degree of the
distantly related key, F minor.
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This change triggers a shift of mode and a new thrust of forward motion, set by
activation in the accompaniment. Time hastens with a forward thrust, created by
literally reversing the two characteristic attributes of the opening pattern.
Instead of the opening long-short-long, the pattern is now short-long-short, and
the change of pitch that was attempting, almost in vain, to break free at the
end of the pattern, is now front-ended, and catapults the melody into motion
while the repeated note, before a stutter, no longer resists motion but rather
adds to the forward thrust. If time was gasping for life, it is now suddenly,
breathlessly energetic.
The new melody in the middle section aggressively probes the future. Yet while
its energetic accompaniment seems faster and shorter than the opening, it is, in
fact exactly equal in duration: the same number of measures, same number of
beats, even the same rate of harmonic change. The section grinds to a halt,
introducing the recapitulation of the opening, this time adding a more
ornamented line and counterpoint that seems, with only limited success, to keep
the music from returning to temporal stasis.
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Schubert effectively tricks us into perceiving a timespan far more expansive
than registered by a stopwatch.8 Within this illusion of stretched time, he
embeds another illusion, of a considerably faster and shorter section sandwiched
between slow and virtually motionless music, when, in fact, by the metronome and
the clock, all three sections are of equal length.
The third movement, Scherzo, which follows the slow Adagio, stands in temporal
and rhythmic opposition to its predecessor. Here again, there are three
sections. A fast opening,
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followed by a middle section in stark contrast to the opening, and the
recapitulation of the opening.
In opposition to the subjective long-short-long sections of the Adagio, the
perceived timespans here are fast-slow-fast (or short-long-short). The energetic
outer sections grind to a near halt with the middle section. Here again, not
only is perceptual time manipulated, but the temporal warping is the very
underpinning of the overall musical structure. Just as the perceived distorted
time of the Adagio was a reflection of the long-short-long surface rhythm of the
Adagio, so the short-long-short surface rhythm of the Scherzo mirrors the
perceived time of the movement.
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Even though I attended my first concert of the String Quintet 40 years ago, I am
still overcome by its powers. The slow second movement persistently puts me on
the verge of a sense of temporal stasis. I feel submerged in a viscous
medium—not at all struggling to move forward, but rather fully absorbed in an
alternate temporal universe. Although immersed in the music, I am aware of time
in the external world. I tend to breathe along with phrases, and find myself
coming up short of breath. Remarkably, this sensation is relived each time I
listen to the String Quintet. Like all music that feels both part of time and
beyond it, the String Quintet seems to connect us to something bigger than
ourselves—in the words of Schubert’s friend and collaborator, the poet Franz von
Schober, “time’s infinite ocean.”
Jonathan Berger is the Denning Family Provostial Professor in Music at Stanford
University, where he teaches composition, music theory, and cognition at the
Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics. His most recent recording
is Jiyeh, a violin concerto.
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Footnotes
1. Down, S. J., The effect of tempo of background music on duration of stay and
spending in a bar. Thesis, University of Jyväskylä (2009).
2. Milliman, R. E., Using Background Music to Affect the Behavior of Supermarket
Shoppers. Journal of Marketing (1982).
3. Yalch, R. F. & Spangenberg, E. The Effects of Music in a Retail Setting on
Real and Perceived Shopping Times. Journal of Business Research (2000).
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4. The capacity of the first audio CDs (about 73 minutes) was, by all accounts,
set by Sony President Norio Ohga’s desire to hold the entirety of Beethoven’s
9th Symphony on a single disc.
5. In fact, despite the ability to fit longer works on 45s and LPs, the average
duration of songs continued to decline through the 1950s.
6. Goldberg II, H. M, & Malach R., When the brain loses its self: Prefrontal
inactivation during sensorimotor processing. Neuron (2006).
7. Wittmann, M, van Wassenhove, V, Craig, A.D., & Paulus, Martin P., The neural
substrates of subjective time dilation. Frontiers of Human Neuroscience (2010).
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8. The warping of perceptual time in the String Quintet is even shared by
professional musicians, who have played the work many times. This is illustrated
by the charts below, created by Jonathan Berger. The first chart shows the
length of each movement in nine different recordings of the work. The second
chart shows the estimated time of each movement by the performers.
Table 1: Comparison of clock timings of nine commercial recordings of the String
Quintet. (The relative brevity of the first movement of performance eight is due
to the omission of the repetition of the exposition.)
Table 2: Estimates by five professional string players soon after performing the
String Quintet.
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Music files courtesy of the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center
Publisher: Boston: Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum
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