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CONTENTS
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* (Top)
* 1Etymology and terminology
* 2History
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* 2.1Origins and prehistory
* 2.2Antiquity
* 2.3Asian cultures
* 2.4Western classical
* 2.4.1Early music
* 2.4.2Common practice period
* 2.4.2.1Baroque
* 2.4.2.2Classicism
* 2.4.2.3Romanticism
* 2.520th and 21st century
* 3Creation
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* 3.1Composition
* 3.2Performance
* 3.3Improvisation
* 4Art and entertainment
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* 4.1Notation
* 4.2Oral and aural tradition
* 5Elements
Toggle Elements subsection
* 5.1Pitch
* 5.2Melody
* 5.3Harmony
* 5.4Rhythm
* 5.5Texture
* 5.6Timbre
* 5.7Expression
* 5.8Form
* 6Philosophy
* 7Psychology
Toggle Psychology subsection
* 7.1Neuroscience
* 7.2Cognitive musicology
* 7.3Psychoacoustics
* 7.4Evolutionary musicology
* 7.5Cultural effects
* 7.6Perceptual
* 8Sociological aspects
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* 8.1Role of women
* 9Media and technology
* 10Education
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* 10.1Non-institutional
* 10.2Institutional
* 11Academic study
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* 11.1Musicology
* 11.2Music theory
* 11.3Zoomusicology
* 11.4Ethnomusicology
* 12Therapy
* 13See also
* 14References
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* 14.1Notes
* 14.2Citations
* 14.3Sources
* 15Further reading
* 16External links
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MUSIC
225 languages
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* አማርኛ
* Anarâškielâ
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* العربية
* Aragonés
* ܐܪܡܝܐ
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* Asturianu
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* Aymar aru
* Azərbaycanca
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* ދިވެހިބަސް
* Eesti
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* Euskara
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* Galego
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Form of art using sound
For other uses, see Music (disambiguation).
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Grooved side of the Voyager Golden Record launched along the Voyager probes to
space, which feature music from around the world
Part of a series onPerforming arts
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Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some
combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive
content.[1][2][3] Definitions of music vary depending on culture,[4] though it
is an aspect of all human societies, a cultural universal.[5] While scholars
agree that music is defined by a few specific elements, there is no consensus on
their precise definitions.[6] The creation of music is commonly divided into
musical composition, musical improvisation, and musical performance,[7] though
the topic itself extends into academic disciplines, criticism, philosophy, and
psychology. Music may be performed or improvised using a vast range of
instruments, including the human voice.
In some musical contexts, a performance or composition may be to some extent
improvised. For instance, in Hindustani classical music, the performer plays
spontaneously while following a partially defined structure and using
characteristic motifs. In modal jazz the performers may take turns leading and
responding, while sharing a changing set of notes. In a free jazz context, there
may be no structure whatsoever, with each performer acting at their discretion.
Music may be deliberately composed to be unperformable, or agglomerated
electronically from many performances. Music is played in public and private
areas, highlighted at events such as festivals, rock concerts, and orchestra
performance, and heard incidentally as part of a score or soundtrack to a film,
TV show, opera, or video game. Musical playback is the primary function of an
MP3 player or CD player and a universal feature of radios and smartphones.
Music often plays a key role in social activities, religious rituals, rite of
passage ceremonies, celebrations, and cultural activities. The music industry
includes songwriters, performers, sound engineers, producers, tour organizers,
distributors of instruments, accessories, and sheet music. Compositions,
performances, and recordings are assessed and evaluated by music critics, music
journalists, and music scholars, as well as amateurs.
ETYMOLOGY AND TERMINOLOGY
In Greek mythology, the nine Muses were the inspiration for many creative
endeavors, including the arts, and eventually became closely aligned with music
specifically.
The modern English word 'music' came into use in the 1630s.[8] It is derived
from a long line of successive precursors: the Old English 'musike' of the
mid-13th century; the Old French musique of the 12th century; and the Latin
mūsica.[9][10][n 1] The Latin word itself derives from the Ancient Greek mousiké
(technē)—μουσική (τέχνη)—literally meaning "(art) of the Muses".[9][n 2] The
Muses were nine deities in Ancient Greek mythology who presided over the arts
and sciences.[13][14] They were included in tales by the earliest Western
authors, Homer and Hesiod,[15] and eventually came to be associated with music
specifically.[14] Over time, Polyhymnia would reside over music more prominently
than the other muses.[11] The Latin word musica was also the originator for both
the Spanish música and French musique via spelling and linguistic adjustment,
though other European terms were probably loanwords, including the Italian
musica, German Musik, Dutch muziek, Norwegian musikk, Polish muzyka and Russian
muzïka.[14]
The modern Western world usually defines music as an all-encompassing term, used
to describe diverse genres, styles and traditions.[16] This is not the case
worldwide, and languages such as modern Indonesian (musik) and Shona (musakazo)
have recently adopted words to reflect this universal conception, as they did
not have words that fit exactly the Western scope.[14] In East Asia, neither
Japan nor China have a single word which encompasses music in a broad sense, but
culturally often regard music in such a fashion.[17] The closest word to mean
music in Chinese, yue, shares a character with le, meaning joy, and originally
referred to all the arts before its narrowing in meaning.[17] Africa is too
diverse to make firm generalizations, but the musicologist J. H. Kwabena Nketia
has emphasized African music's often inseparable connection to dance and speech
in general.[18] Some African cultures, such as the Songye people of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tiv people of Nigeria, have a strong and
broad conception of 'music' but no corresponding word in their native
languages.[18] Other words commonly translated as 'music' often have more
specific meanings in their respective cultures: the Hindi word for music,
sangita, properly refers to art music,[19] while the many Indigenous languages
of the Americas have words for music that refer specifically to song but
describe instrumental music regardless.[20] Though the Arabic musiqi can refer
to all music, it is usually used for instrumental and metric music, while
khandan identifies vocal and improvised music.[21]
HISTORY
Main article: History of music
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view
of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk
page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (October 2021) (Learn how and
when to remove this template message)
ORIGINS AND PREHISTORY
Further information: Origins of music and Prehistoric music
The Divje Babe flute, the oldest known musical instrument. It is made from the
femur bone of a cave bear.
It is often debated as to what extent the origins of music will ever be
understood,[22] and there are many competing theories that aim to explain
it.[23] Many scholars highlight a relationship between the origin of music and
the origin of language, and there is disagreement surrounding whether music
developed before, after, or simultaneously with language.[24] A similar source
of contention surrounds whether music was the intentional result of natural
selection or was a byproduct spandrel of evolution.[24] The earliest influential
theory was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1871, who stated that music arose as a
form of sexual selection, perhaps via mating calls.[25] Darwin's original
perspective has been heavily criticized for its inconsistencies with other
sexual selection methods,[26] though many scholars in the 21st century have
developed and promoted the theory.[27] Other theories include that music arose
to assist in organizing labor, improving long-distance communication, benefiting
communication with the divine, assisting in community cohesion or as a defense
to scare off predators.[28]
Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic
archaeology sites. Flutes are often discovered, carved from bones in which
lateral holes have been pierced; these are thought to have been blown at one end
like the Japanese shakuhachi.[citation needed] The Divje Babe flute, carved from
a cave bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old, though there is
considerable debate surrounding whether it is truly a musical instrument or an
object formed by animals.[29] Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and
various types of stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been
recovered from the Indus Valley civilization archaeological sites.[30]
India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian
classical music (marga) are found in the Vedas, ancient scriptures of the Hindu
tradition.[31]
The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found
in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BCE.[32]
ANTIQUITY
Main articles: Music of Egypt and Music of Greece
Musicians of Amun, Tomb of Nakht, 18th Dynasty, Western Thebes
The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical
instruments dates to the Predynastic period, but the evidence is more securely
attested in the Old Kingdom when harps, flutes and double clarinets were
played.[33] Percussion instruments, lyres, and lutes were added to orchestras by
the Middle Kingdom. Cymbals[34] frequently accompanied music and dance, much as
they still do in Egypt today. Egyptian folk music, including the traditional
Sufi dhikr rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient Egyptian
music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and instruments.[35][36]
The "Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal", found on clay tablets that date back to
approximately 1400 BCE, is the oldest surviving notated work of music.[37][38]
Music was an important part of social and cultural life in ancient Greece, in
fact it was one of the main subjects taught to children. Musical education was
considered to be important for the development of an individual's soul.
Musicians and singers played a prominent role in Greek theater,[39] and those
who received a musical education were seen as nobles and in perfect harmony (as
can be read in the Republic, Plato). Mixed gender choruses performed for
entertainment, celebration, and spiritual ceremonies.[40] Instruments included
the double-reed aulos and a plucked string instrument, the lyre, principally a
special kind called a kithara. Music was an important part of education, and
boys were taught music starting at age six. Greek musical literacy created
significant musical development. Greek music theory included the Greek musical
modes, that eventually became the basis for Western religious and classical
music. Later, influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe, and the
Byzantine Empire changed Greek music. The Seikilos epitaph is the oldest
surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation,
from anywhere in the world.[41] The oldest surviving work written on the subject
of music theory is Harmonika Stoicheia by Aristoxenus.[42]
ASIAN CULTURES
Main article: Music of Asia
Indian women dressed in regional attire playing a variety of musical instruments
popular in different parts of India
Asian music covers a vast swath of music cultures surveyed in the articles on
Arabia, Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Several have
traditions reaching into antiquity.
Indian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.[43]
Sculptures from the Indus Valley civilization show dance[44] and old musical
instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments
and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations
carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.[45] The Rigveda, an ancient Hindu text, has
elements of present Indian music, with musical notation to denote the meter and
the mode of chanting.[46] Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and
based on a single melody line or raga rhythmically organized through talas.
Silappadhikaram by Ilango Adigal provides information about how new scales can
be formed by modal shifting of the tonic from an existing scale.[47] Present day
Hindi music was influenced by Persian traditional music and Afghan Mughals.
Carnatic music, popular in the southern states, is largely devotional; the
majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are also many
songs emphasizing love and other social issues.
Indonesia is the home of gong chime, there are many variants across Indonesia,
especially in Java and Bali.
Indonesian music has been formed since the Bronze Age culture migrated to the
Indonesian archipelago in the 2nd to 3rd centuries BCE. Indonesian traditional
music often uses percussion instruments, especially kendang and gongs. Some of
them developed elaborate and distinctive musical instruments, such as the
sasando stringed instrument on the island of Rote, the Sundanese angklung, and
the complex and sophisticated Javanese and Balinese gamelan orchestras.
Indonesia is the home of gong chime, a general term for a set of small, high
pitched pot gongs. Gongs are usually placed in order of note, with the boss up
on a string held in a low wooden frame. The most popular and famous form of
Indonesian music is probably gamelan, an ensemble of tuned percussion
instruments that include metallophones, drums, gongs and spike fiddles along
with bamboo suling.
Chinese classical music, the traditional art or court music of China, has a
history stretching over around three thousand years. It has its own unique
systems of musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical
instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic,
having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5 + 7 = 12) as does
European-influenced music.
WESTERN CLASSICAL
Main article: Western Classical Music
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adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (October 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
EARLY MUSIC
Breves dies hominis
3:32
by Léonin or Pérotin
Musical notation from a Catholic Missal, c. 1310–1320
The medieval music era (476 to 1400), which took place during the Middle Ages,
started with the introduction of monophonic (single melodic line) chanting into
Roman Catholic Church services. Musical notation was used since Ancient times in
Greek culture, but in the Middle Ages, notation was first introduced by the
Catholic church so that the chant melodies could be written down, to facilitate
the use of the same melodies for religious music across the entire Catholic
empire. The only European Medieval repertory that has been found in written form
from before 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong chant of the Roman
Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant.
Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant
tradition of secular song (non-religious songs). Examples of composers from this
period are Léonin, Pérotin, Guillaume de Machaut, and Walther von der
Vogelweide.
Renaissance music (c. 1400 to 1600) was more focused on secular (non-religious)
themes, such as courtly love. Around 1450, the printing press was invented,
which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to mass-produce
(prior to the invention of the printing press, all notated music was
hand-copied). The increased availability of sheet music helped to spread musical
styles more quickly and across a larger area. Musicians and singers often worked
for the church, courts and towns. Church choirs grew in size, and the church
remained an important patron of music. By the middle of the 15th century,
composers wrote richly polyphonic sacred music, in which different melody lines
were interwoven simultaneously. Prominent composers from this era include
Guillaume Dufay, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Thomas Morley, and Orlande de
Lassus. As musical activity shifted from the church to the aristocratic courts,
kings, queens and princes competed for the finest composers. Many leading
important composers came from the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France.
They are called the Franco-Flemish composers. They held important positions
throughout Europe, especially in Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical
activity included Germany, England, and Spain.
COMMON PRACTICE PERIOD
BAROQUE
Main article: Baroque music
Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565
8:34
Toccata and Fugue by J.S. Bach
The Baroque era of music took place from 1600 to 1750, as the Baroque artistic
style flourished across Europe; and during this time, music expanded in its
range and complexity. Baroque music began when the first operas (dramatic solo
vocal music accompanied by orchestra) were written. During the Baroque era,
polyphonic contrapuntal music, in which multiple, simultaneous independent
melody lines were used, remained important (counterpoint was important in the
vocal music of the Medieval era). German Baroque composers wrote for small
ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as for choirs and
keyboard instruments such as pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During
this period several major music forms were defined that lasted into later
periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue, the
invention, the sonata, and the concerto.[48] The late Baroque style was
polyphonically complex and richly ornamented. Important composers from the
Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach (Cello suites), George Frideric Handel
(Messiah), Georg Philipp Telemann and Antonio Lucio Vivaldi (The Four Seasons).
CLASSICISM
Main article: Classical period (music)
Symphony No. 40 G minor
8:14
Symphony 40 G minor by W.A. Mozart
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical
period.
The music of the Classical period (1730 to 1820) aimed to imitate what were seen
as the key elements of the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome: the
ideals of balance, proportion and disciplined expression. (Note: the music from
the Classical period should not be confused with Classical music in general, a
term which refers to Western art music from the 5th century to the 2000s, which
includes the Classical period as one of a number of periods). Music from the
Classical period has a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler texture than
the Baroque music which preceded it. The main style was homophony,[49] where a
prominent melody and a subordinate chordal accompaniment part are clearly
distinct. Classical instrumental melodies tended to be almost voicelike and
singable. New genres were developed, and the fortepiano, the forerunner to the
modern piano, replaced the Baroque era harpsichord and pipe organ as the main
keyboard instrument (though pipe organ continued to be used in sacred music,
such as Masses).
Importance was given to instrumental music. It was dominated by further
development of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the
sonata, the concerto, and the symphony. Others main kinds were the trio, string
quartet, serenade and divertimento. The sonata was the most important and
developed form. Although Baroque composers also wrote sonatas, the Classical
style of sonata is completely distinct. All of the main instrumental forms of
the Classical era, from string quartets to symphonies and concertos, were based
on the structure of the sonata. The instruments used chamber music and orchestra
became more standardized. In place of the basso continuo group of the Baroque
era, which consisted of harpsichord, organ or lute along with a number of bass
instruments selected at the discretion of the group leader (e.g., viol, cello,
theorbo, serpent), Classical chamber groups used specified, standardized
instruments (e.g., a string quartet would be performed by two violins, a viola
and a cello). The Baroque era improvised chord-playing of the continuo
keyboardist or lute player was gradually phased out between 1750 and 1800.
One of the most important changes made in the Classical period was the
development of public concerts. The aristocracy still played a significant role
in the sponsorship of concerts and compositions, but it was now possible for
composers to survive without being permanent employees of queens or princes. The
increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth in the number and types
of orchestras. The expansion of orchestral concerts necessitated the building of
large public performance spaces. Symphonic music including symphonies, musical
accompaniment to ballet and mixed vocal/instrumental genres such as opera and
oratorio became more popular.
The best known composers of Classicism are Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Christoph
Willibald Gluck, Johann Christian Bach, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert. Beethoven and Schubert are also
considered to be composers in the later part of the Classical era, as it began
to move towards Romanticism.
ROMANTICISM
Main article: Romantic music
Die Walküre
27:57
Die Walküre by Richard Wagner
The piano was the centrepiece of social activity for middle-class urbanites in
the 19th century (Moritz von Schwind, 1868). The man at the piano is composer
Franz Schubert.
Romantic music (c. 1810 to 1900) from the 19th century had many elements in
common with the Romantic styles in literature and painting of the era.
Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement was
characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as
glorification of all the past and nature. Romantic music expanded beyond the
rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate, dramatic
expressive pieces and songs. Romantic composers such as Wagner and Brahms
attempted to increase emotional expression and power in their music to describe
deeper truths or human feelings. With symphonic tone poems, composers tried to
tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using instrumental music. Some
composers promoted nationalistic pride with patriotic orchestral music inspired
by folk music. The emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take
precedence over tradition.
Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism of
exploring different art-forms in a musical context, (such as literature),
history (historical figures and legends), or nature itself. Romantic love or
longing was a prevalent theme in many works composed during this period. In some
cases, the formal structures from the classical period continued to be used
(e.g., the sonata form used in string quartets and symphonies), but these forms
were expanded and altered. In many cases, new approaches were explored for
existing genres, forms, and functions. Also, new forms were created that were
deemed better suited to the new subject matter. Composers continued to develop
opera and ballet music, exploring new styles and themes.[39]
In the years after 1800, the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz
Schubert introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. In Beethoven's case,
short motifs, developed organically, came to replace melody as the most
significant compositional unit (an example is the distinctive four note figure
used in his Fifth Symphony). Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr Ilyich
Tchaikovsky, Antonín Dvořák, and Gustav Mahler used more unusual chords and more
dissonance to create dramatic tension. They generated complex and often much
longer musical works. During the late Romantic period, composers explored
dramatic chromatic alterations of tonality, such as extended chords and altered
chords, which created new sound "colors." The late 19th century saw a dramatic
expansion in the size of the orchestra, and the industrial revolution helped to
create better instruments, creating a more powerful sound. Public concerts
became an important part of well-to-do urban society. It also saw a new
diversity in theatre music, including operetta, and musical comedy and other
forms of musical theatre.[39]
20TH AND 21ST CENTURY
Main article: 20th-century music
Landman's 2006 Moodswinger, a 3rd-bridged overtone zither and an example of
experimental musical instruments
In the 19th century, one of the key ways that new compositions became known to
the public was by the sales of sheet music, which middle class amateur music
lovers would perform at home on their piano or other common instruments, such as
violin. With 20th-century music, the invention of new electric technologies such
as radio broadcasting and the mass market availability of gramophone records
meant that sound recordings of songs and pieces heard by listeners (either on
the radio or on their record player) became the main way to learn about new
songs and pieces. There was a vast increase in music listening as the radio
gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music,
anyone with a radio or record player could hear operas, symphonies and big bands
right in their own living room, while during the 19th century, the focus on
sheet music restricted access to new music to the middle class and upper-class
people who could read music and who owned pianos and instruments. This allowed
lower-income people, who could not afford an opera or symphony concert ticket to
hear this music. It also meant that people could hear music from different parts
of the country, or even different parts of the world, even if they could not
afford to travel to these locations. This helped to spread musical styles.
Luciano Pavarotti
The focus of art music in the 20th century was characterized by exploration of
new rhythms, styles, and sounds. The horrors of World War I influenced many of
the arts, including music, and some composers began exploring darker, harsher
sounds. Traditional music styles such as jazz and folk music were used by
composers as a source of ideas for classical music. Igor Stravinsky, Arnold
Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th-century art
music. The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave rise
to new subgenre of classical music, including the acousmatic[50] and Musique
concrète schools of electronic composition. Sound recording was also a major
influence on the development of popular music genres, because it enabled
recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed. The introduction of the
multitrack recording system had a major influence on rock music, because it
could do much more than record a band's performance. Using a multitrack system,
a band and their music producer could overdub many layers of instrument tracks
and vocals, creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live
performance.
Jazz evolved and became an important genre of music over the course of the 20th
century, and during the second half of that century, rock music did the same.
Jazz is an American musical artform that originated in the beginning of the 20th
century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a
confluence of African and European music traditions. The style's West African
pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms,
syncopation, and the swung note.[51]
Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed in the 1950s from 1960s
rock and roll, rockabilly, blues, and country music.[52] The sound of rock often
revolves around the electric guitar or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong
back beat laid down by a rhythm section. Along with the guitar or keyboards,
saxophone and blues-style harmonica are used as soloing instruments. In its
"purest form", it "has three chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a catchy
melody."[This quote needs a citation] The traditional rhythm section for popular
music is rhythm guitar, electric bass guitar, drums. Some bands also have
keyboard instruments such as organ, piano, or, since the 1970s, analog
synthesizers. In the 1980s, pop musicians began using digital synthesizers, such
as the DX-7 synthesizer, electronic drum machines such as the TR-808 and synth
bass devices (such as the TB-303) or synth bass keyboards. In the 1990s, an
increasingly large range of computerized hardware musical devices and
instruments and software (e.g. digital audio workstations) were used. In the
2020s, soft synths and computer music apps make it possible for bedroom
producers to create and record some types of music, such as electronic dance
music, in their own home, adding sampled and digital instruments and editing the
recording digitally. In the 1990s, some bands in genres such as nu metal began
including DJs in their bands. DJs create music by manipulating recorded music on
record players or CD players, using a DJ mixer.
Innovation in music technology continued into the 21st century, including the
development of isomorphic keyboards and Dynamic Tonality.
CREATION
COMPOSITION
Main article: Musical composition
French Baroque music composer Michel Richard Delalande (1657–1726), pen in hand
People composing music in 2013 using electronic keyboards and computers
"Composition" is the act or practice of creating a song, an instrumental music
piece, a work with both singing and instruments, or another type of music. In
many cultures, including Western classical music, the act of composing also
includes the creation of music notation, such as a sheet music "score", which is
then performed by the composer or by other singers or musicians. In popular
music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically called
songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the
lead sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord progression. In
classical music, the composer typically orchestrates his or her own
compositions, but in musical theatre and in pop music, songwriters may hire an
arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a songwriter may not use
notation at all, and instead, compose the song in her mind and then play or
record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by
influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in
classical music.
Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in classical music, there
are many decisions that a performer has to make, because notation does not
specify all of the elements of music precisely. The process of deciding how to
perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed
"interpretation". Different performers' interpretations of the same work of
music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or
singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present
their own music are interpreting their songs, just as much as those who perform
the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a
given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas
interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a
performer.[citation needed]
Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single
author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple
composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write
a song, or in musical theatre, when one person writes the melodies, a second
person writes the lyrics, and a third person orchestrates the songs. In some
styles of music, such as the blues, a composer/songwriter may create, perform
and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in music notation.
A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or computer programs
that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds.
Examples range from avant-garde music that uses graphic notation, to text
compositions such as Aus den sieben Tagen, to computer programs that select
sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance
is called aleatoric music, and is associated with contemporary composers active
in the 20th century, such as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski.
A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes
jingling in a breeze.
The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of
methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of
composition is broad enough to include the creation of popular music and
traditional music songs and instrumental pieces as well as spontaneously
improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists
such as Ewe drummers.
PERFORMANCE
Main article: Performance
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Chinese Naxi musicians
Assyrians playing zurna and Davul, instruments that go back thousands of years
Performance is the physical expression of music, which occurs when a song is
sung or when a piano piece, electric guitar melody, symphony, drum beat or other
musical part is played by musicians. In classical music, a musical work is
written in music notation by a composer and then it is performed once the
composer is satisfied with its structure and instrumentation. However, as it
gets performed, the interpretation of a song or piece can evolve and change. In
classical music, instrumental performers, singers or conductors may gradually
make changes to the phrasing or tempo of a piece. In popular and traditional
music, the performers have a lot more freedom to make changes to the form of a
song or piece. As such, in popular and traditional music styles, even when a
band plays a cover song, they can make changes to it such as adding a guitar
solo to or inserting an introduction.
A performance can either be planned out and rehearsed (practiced)—which is the
norm in classical music, jazz big bands, and many popular music styles–or
improvised over a chord progression (a sequence of chords), which is the norm in
small jazz and blues groups. Rehearsals of orchestras, concert bands and choirs
are led by a conductor. Rock, blues and jazz bands are usually led by the
bandleader. A rehearsal is a structured repetition of a song or piece by the
performers until it can be sung or played correctly and, if it is a song or
piece for more than one musician, until the parts are together from a rhythmic
and tuning perspective. Improvisation is the creation of a musical idea–a melody
or other musical line–created on the spot, often based on scales or pre-existing
melodic riffs.
Many cultures have strong traditions of solo performance (in which one singer or
instrumentalist performs), such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western
art-music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong traditions
of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance
may range from improvised solo playing to highly planned and organized
performances such as the modern classical concert, religious processions,
classical music festivals or music competitions. Chamber music, which is music
for a small ensemble with only one or a few of each type of instrument, is often
seen as more intimate than large symphonic works.
IMPROVISATION
Main article: Musical improvisation
Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music, often within (or
based on) a pre-existing harmonic framework or chord progression. Improvisers
use the notes of the chord, various scales that are associated with each chord,
and chromatic ornaments and passing tones which may be neither chord tones nor
from the typical scales associated with a chord. Musical improvisation can be
done with or without preparation. Improvisation is a major part of some types of
music, such as blues, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers
improvise solos, melody lines, and accompaniment parts.
In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill during
the Baroque era and during the Classical era. In the Baroque era, performers
improvised ornaments, and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord
voicings based on figured bass notation. As well, the top soloists were expected
to be able to improvise pieces such as preludes. In the Classical era, solo
performers and singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas during concerts.
However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as "common practice" Western art
music performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras, opera houses,
and ballets, improvisation has played a smaller role, as more and more music was
notated in scores and parts for musicians to play. At the same time, some 20th
and 21st century art music composers have increasingly included improvisation in
their creative work. In Indian classical music, improvisation is a core
component and an essential criterion of performances.
ART AND ENTERTAINMENT
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Khatia Buniatishvili playing a grand piano
Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic
pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for
the marketplace. When music was only available through sheet music scores, such
as during the Classical and Romantic eras, music lovers would buy the sheet
music of their favourite pieces and songs so that they could perform them at
home on the piano. With the advent of the phonograph, records of popular songs,
rather than sheet music became the dominant way that music lovers would enjoy
their favourite songs. With the advent of home tape recorders in the 1980s and
digital music in the 1990s, music lovers could make tapes or playlists of their
favourite songs and take them with them on a portable cassette player or MP3
player. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their favourite songs, which serve
as a "self-portrait, a gesture of friendship, prescription for an ideal party...
[and] an environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved".[53]
Amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure and derive
their income elsewhere. Professional musicians are employed by a range of
institutions and organisations, including armed forces (in marching bands,
concert bands and popular music groups), religious institutions, symphony
orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools.
Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians,
seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings. There are often many
links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians
take lessons with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced
amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles
such as community concert bands and community orchestras.
A distinction is often made between music performed for a live audience and
music that is performed in a studio so that it can be recorded and distributed
through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are
also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also
recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in both classical
music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live
concerts are prized by music lovers. In the jam band scene, live, improvised jam
sessions are preferred to studio recordings.
NOTATION
Main article: Musical notation
Sheet music is a written representation of music. Homorhythmic (i.e.,
hymn-style) arrangement of the traditional "Adeste Fideles" in standard
two-staff format for mixed voices. play (help·info)
In the 2000s, music notation typically means the written expression of music
notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the
pitches and rhythm of the music, such as the notes of a melody, are notated.
Music notation also often provides instructions on how to perform the music. For
example, the sheet music for a song may state that the song is a "slow blues" or
a "fast swing", which indicates the tempo and the genre. To read music notation,
a person must have an understanding of music theory, harmony and the performance
practice associated with a particular song or piece's genre.
Written notation varies with the style and period of music. In the 2000s,
notated music is produced as sheet music or, for individuals with computer
scorewriter programs, as an image on a computer screen. In ancient times, music
notation was put onto stone or clay tablets. To perform music from notation, a
singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the rhythmic and pitch
elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated
with a piece of music or a genre. In genres requiring musical improvisation, the
performer often plays from music where only the chord changes and form of the
song are written, requiring the performer to have a great understanding of the
music's structure, harmony and the styles of a particular genre (e.g., jazz or
country music).
In Western art music, the most common types of written notation are scores,
which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the
music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz,
and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the
melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music.
Fake books are also used in jazz; they may consist of lead sheets or simply
chord charts, which permit rhythm section members to improvise an accompaniment
part to jazz songs. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz,
particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands." In popular music,
guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature
(often abbreviated as "tab"), which indicates the location of the notes to be
played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard.
Tablature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a
stringed, fretted instrument.
ORAL AND AURAL TRADITION
Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk music were not written
down in sheet music; instead, they were originally preserved in the memory of
performers, and the songs were handed down orally, from one musician or singer
to another, or aurally, in which a performer learns a song "by ear". When the
composer of a song or piece is no longer known, this music is often classified
as "traditional" or as a "folk song". Different musical traditions have
different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source
material, from quite strict, to those that demand improvisation or modification
to the music. A culture's history and stories may also be passed on by ear
through song.
ELEMENTS
Main article: Elements of music
Music has many different fundamentals or elements. Depending on the definition
of "element" being used, these can include pitch, beat or pulse, tempo, rhythm,
melody, harmony, texture, style, allocation of voices, timbre or color,
dynamics, expression, articulation, form, and structure. The elements of music
feature prominently in the music curriculums of Australia, the UK, and the US.
All three curriculums identify pitch, dynamics, timbre, and texture as elements,
but the other identified elements of music are far from universally agreed upon.
Below is a list of the three official versions of the "elements of music":
* Australia: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics and expression, rhythm, form and
structure.[54]
* UK: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, duration, tempo, structure.[55]
* USA: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, rhythm, form, harmony,
style/articulation.[56]
In relation to the UK curriculum, in 2013 the term: "appropriate musical
notations" was added to their list of elements and the title of the list was
changed from the "elements of music" to the "inter-related dimensions of music".
The inter-related dimensions of music are listed as: pitch, duration, dynamics,
tempo, timbre, texture, structure, and appropriate musical notations.[57]
The phrase "the elements of music" is used in a number of different contexts.
The two most common contexts can be differentiated by describing them as the
"rudimentary elements of music" and the "perceptual elements of music".[n 3]
PITCH
Main article: Pitch (music)
Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one musical
sound, note, or tone is "higher" or "lower" than another musical sound, note, or
tone. We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the more general
sense, such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo note or
whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum. We also talk
about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies, basslines and
chords. Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency
that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. For example, it is
much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a
piano than to try to discern the pitch of a crash cymbal that is struck.
MELODY
Main article: Melody
The melody to the traditional song "Pop Goes the Weasel" play (help·info)
A melody (also called a "tune") is a series of pitches (notes) sounding in
succession (one after the other), often in a rising and falling pattern. The
notes of a melody are typically created using pitch systems such as scales or
modes. Melodies also often contain notes from the chords used in the song. The
melodies in simple folk songs and traditional songs may use only the notes of a
single scale, the scale associated with the tonic note or key of a given song.
For example, a folk song in the key of C (also referred to as C major) may have
a melody that uses only the notes of the C major scale (the individual notes C,
D, E, F, G, A, B, and C; these are the "white notes" on a piano keyboard. On the
other hand, Bebop-era jazz from the 1940s and contemporary music from the 20th
and 21st centuries may use melodies with many chromatic notes (i.e., notes in
addition to the notes of the major scale; on a piano, a chromatic scale would
include all the notes on the keyboard, including the "white notes" and "black
notes" and unusual scales, such as the whole tone scale (a whole tone scale in
the key of C would contain the notes C, D, E, F♯, G♯ and A♯). A low, deep
musical line played by bass instruments such as double bass, electric bass, or
tuba is called a bassline.
HARMONY
Main article: Harmony
A player performing a chord (combination of many different notes) on a guitar
Harmony refers to the "vertical" sounds of pitches in music, which means pitches
that are played or sung together at the same time to create a chord. Usually,
this means the notes are played at the same time, although harmony may also be
implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure (i.e., by using melody
notes that are played one after the other, outlining the notes of a chord). In
music written using the system of major-minor tonality ("keys"), which includes
most classical music written from 1600 to 1900 and most Western pop, rock, and
traditional music, the key of a piece determines the "home note" or tonic to
which the piece generally resolves, and the character (e.g. major or minor) of
the scale in use. Simple classical pieces and many pop and traditional music
songs are written so that all the music is in a single key. More complex
Classical, pop, and traditional music songs and pieces may have two keys (and in
some cases three or more keys). Classical music from the Romantic era (written
from about 1820–1900) often contains multiple keys, as does jazz, especially
Bebop jazz from the 1940s, in which the key or "home note" of a song may change
every four bars or even every two bars.
RHYTHM
Main article: Rhythm
Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds and silences in time. Meter animates time in
regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars, which in Western classical,
popular, and traditional music often group notes in sets of two (e.g., 2/4
time), three (e.g., 3/4 time, also known as Waltz time, or 3/8 time), or four
(e.g., 4/4 time). Meters are made easier to hear because songs and pieces often
(but not always) place an emphasis on the first beat of each grouping. Notable
exceptions exist, such as the backbeat used in much Western pop and rock, in
which a song that uses a measure that consists of four beats (called 4/4 time or
common time) will have accents on beats two and four, which are typically
performed by the drummer on the snare drum, a loud and distinctive-sounding
percussion instrument. In pop and rock, the rhythm parts of a song are played by
the rhythm section, which includes chord-playing instruments (e.g., electric
guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, or other keyboard instruments), a bass
instrument (typically electric bass or for some styles such as jazz and
bluegrass, double bass) and a drum kit player.
TEXTURE
Main article: Texture (music)
Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music or song. The texture of
a piece or song is determined by how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic
materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the overall nature of
the sound in a piece. Texture is often described in regard to the density, or
thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative
terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of
voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see common types
below). For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of instruments. One
of these layers could be a string section or another brass. The thickness also
is affected by the amount and the richness of the instruments. Texture is
commonly described according to the number of and relationship between parts or
lines of music:
* monophony: a single melody (or "tune") with neither instrumental
accompaniment nor a harmony part. A mother singing a lullaby to her baby
would be an example.
* heterophony: two or more instruments or singers playing/singing the same
melody, but with each performer slightly varying the rhythm or speed of the
melody or adding different ornaments to the melody. Two bluegrass fiddlers
playing the same traditional fiddle tune together will typically each vary
the melody by some degree and each add different ornaments.
* polyphony: multiple independent melody lines that interweave together, which
are sung or played at the same time. Choral music written in the Renaissance
music era was typically written in this style. A round, which is a song such
as "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", which different groups of singers all start to
sing at a different time, is an example of polyphony.
* homophony: a clear melody supported by chordal accompaniment. Most Western
popular music songs from the 19th century onward are written in this texture.
Music that contains a large number of independent parts (e.g., a double concerto
accompanied by 100 orchestral instruments with many interweaving melodic lines)
is generally said to have a "thicker" or "denser" texture than a work with few
parts (e.g., a solo flute melody accompanied by a single cello).
TIMBRE
Main article: Timbre
Spectrogram of the first second of an E9 suspended chord played on a Fender
Stratocaster guitar. Below is the E9 suspended chord audio: 0:13
Timbre, sometimes called "color" or "tone color" is the quality or sound of a
voice or instrument.[62] Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound
different from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness. For
example, a 440 Hz A note sounds different when it is played on oboe, piano,
violin, or electric guitar. Even if different players of the same instrument
play the same note, their notes might sound different due to differences in
instrumental technique (e.g., different embouchures), different types of
accessories (e.g., mouthpieces for brass players, reeds for oboe and bassoon
players) or strings made out of different materials for string players (e.g.,
gut strings versus steel strings). Even two instrumentalists playing the same
note on the same instrument (one after the other) may sound different due to
different ways of playing the instrument (e.g., two string players might hold
the bow differently).
The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre
include the spectrum, envelope, and overtones of a note or musical sound. For
electric instruments developed in the 20th century, such as electric guitar,
electric bass and electric piano, the performer can also change the tone by
adjusting equalizer controls, tone controls on the instrument, and by using
electronic effects units such as distortion pedals. The tone of the electric
Hammond organ is controlled by adjusting drawbars.
EXPRESSION
Expressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music
without changing the main pitches or substantially changing the rhythms of the
melody and its accompaniment. Performers, including singers and
instrumentalists, can add musical expression to a song or piece by adding
phrasing, by adding effects such as vibrato (with voice and some instruments,
such as guitar, violin, brass instruments, and woodwinds), dynamics (the
loudness or softness of piece or a section of it), tempo fluctuations (e.g.,
ritardando or accelerando, which are, respectively slowing down and speeding up
the tempo), by adding pauses or fermatas on a cadence, and by changing the
articulation of the notes (e.g., making notes more pronounced or accented, by
making notes more legato, which means smoothly connected, or by making notes
shorter).
Expression is achieved through the manipulation of pitch (such as inflection,
vibrato, slides etc.), volume (dynamics, accent, tremolo etc.), duration (tempo
fluctuations, rhythmic changes, changing note duration such as with legato and
staccato, etc.), timbre (e.g. changing vocal timbre from a light to a resonant
voice) and sometimes even texture (e.g. doubling the bass note for a richer
effect in a piano piece). Expression therefore can be seen as a manipulation of
all elements in order to convey "an indication of mood, spirit, character
etc."[63] and as such cannot be included as a unique perceptual element of
music,[64] although it can be considered an important rudimentary element of
music.
FORM
See also: Strophic form, Binary form, Ternary form, Rondo form, Variation
(music), and Musical development
Sheet music notation for the chorus (refrain) of the Christmas song "Jingle
Bells" Jingle Bells refrain vector.mid
In music, form describes the overall structure or plan of a song or piece of
music,[65] and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into
sections.[66] In the early 20th century, Tin Pan Alley songs and Broadway
musical songs were often in AABA 32 bar form, in which the A sections repeated
the same eight bar melody (with variation) and the B section provided a
contrasting melody or harmony for eight bars. From the 1960s onward, Western pop
and rock songs are often in verse-chorus form, which comprises a sequence of
verse and chorus ("refrain") sections, with new lyrics for most verses and
repeating lyrics for the choruses. Popular music often makes use of strophic
form, sometimes in conjunction with the twelve bar blues.[citation needed]
In the tenth edition of The Oxford Companion to Music, Percy Scholes defines
musical form as "a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean
between the opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved
alteration."[67] Examples of common forms of Western music include the fugue,
the invention, sonata-allegro, canon, strophic, theme and variations, and rondo.
Scholes states that European classical music had only six stand-alone forms:
simple binary, simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with variations, and
fugue (although musicologist Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue is primarily
a method of composition that has sometimes taken on certain structural
conventions.[68])
Where a piece cannot readily be broken down into sectional units (though it
might borrow some form from a poem, story or programme), it is said to be
through-composed. Such is often the case with a fantasia, prelude, rhapsody,
etude (or study), symphonic poem, Bagatelle, impromptu, etc.[citation needed]
Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as "sectional,
developmental, or variational."[69]
PHILOSOPHY
Main article: Philosophy of music
The Woman in Red by Giovanni Boldini
The philosophy of music is the study of fundamental questions regarding music.
The philosophical study of music has many connections with philosophical
questions in metaphysics and aesthetics. Some basic questions in the philosophy
of music are[according to whom?]:
* What is the definition of music? (What are the necessary and sufficient
conditions for classifying something as music?)
* What is the relationship between music and mind?
* What does music history reveal to us about the world?
* What is the connection between music and emotions?
* What is meaning in relation to music?
In ancient times, such as with the Ancient Greeks, the aesthetics of music
explored the mathematical and cosmological dimensions of rhythmic and harmonic
organization. In the 18th century, focus shifted to the experience of hearing
music, and thus to questions about its beauty and human enjoyment (plaisir and
jouissance) of music. The origin of this philosophic shift is sometimes
attributed to Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten in the 18th century, followed by
Immanuel Kant. Through their writing, the ancient term 'aesthetics', meaning
sensory perception, received its present-day connotation. In the 2000s,
philosophers have tended to emphasize issues besides beauty and enjoyment. For
example, music's capacity to express emotion has been a central issue.[citation
needed]
In the 20th century, important contributions were made by Peter Kivy, Jerrold
Levinson, Roger Scruton, and Stephen Davies. However, many musicians, music
critics, and other non-philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music.
In the 19th century, a significant debate arose between Eduard Hanslick, a music
critic and musicologist, and composer Richard Wagner regarding whether music can
express meaning. Harry Partch and some other musicologists, such as Kyle Gann,
have studied and tried to popularize microtonal music and the usage of alternate
musical scales. Also many modern composers like La Monte Young, Rhys Chatham and
Glenn Branca paid much attention to a scale called just intonation.[citation
needed]
It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our emotions,
intellect, and psychology; it can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions.
The philosopher Plato suggests in The Republic that music has a direct effect on
the soul. Therefore, he proposes that in the ideal regime music would be closely
regulated by the state (Book VII).[70] In Ancient China, the philosopher
Confucius believed that music and rituals or rites are interconnected and
harmonious with nature; he stated that music was the harmonization of heaven and
earth, while the order was brought by the rites order, making them extremely
crucial functions in society.[71]
PSYCHOLOGY
Main article: Music psychology
Modern music psychology aims to explain and understand musical behavior and
experience.[72] Research in this field and its subfields are primarily
empirical; their knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of
data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human
participants. In addition to its focus on fundamental perceptions and cognitive
processes, music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for
many areas, including music performance, composition, education, criticism, and
therapy, as well as investigations of human aptitude, skill, intelligence,
creativity, and social behavior.
NEUROSCIENCE
Main article: Neuroscience of music
The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior
pitch resolution.
Cognitive neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based
mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music. These
behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and
ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for
musical aesthetics and musical emotion. The field is distinguished by its
reliance on direct observations of the brain, using such techniques as
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation
(TMS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron
emission tomography (PET).
COGNITIVE MUSICOLOGY
Main article: Cognitive musicology
Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with
computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both
music and cognition.[73] The use of computer models provides an exacting,
interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories and has roots in
artificial intelligence and cognitive science.[74]
This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between
language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are
often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary
programs.[75] This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented,
stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer
environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be
investigated.[76]
PSYCHOACOUSTICS
Main article: Psychoacoustics
Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically,
it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological
responses associated with sound (including speech and music). It can be further
categorized as a branch of psychophysics.
EVOLUTIONARY MUSICOLOGY
Main article: Evolutionary musicology
Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origins of music, the question of animal
song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and
human evolution".[77] It seeks to understand music perception and activity in
the context of evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin speculated that music may
have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage,[78] a view
which has spawned several competing theories of music
evolution.[79][80][page needed][81] An alternate view sees music as a by-product
of linguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses
without providing any adaptive function.[82] This view has been directly
countered by numerous music researchers.[83][84][85]
CULTURAL EFFECTS
Main article: Culture in music cognition
An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition,
including their preferences, emotional reaction, and musical memory. Musical
preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning
in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends
on both culturally specific and universal structural features.[86][87]
Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally
familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.[88][89]
PERCEPTUAL
Since the emergence of the study of psychoacoustics in the 1930s, most lists of
elements of music have related more to how we hear music than how we learn to
play it or study it. C.E. Seashore, in his book Psychology of Music,[90]
identified four "psychological attributes of sound". These were: "pitch,
loudness, time, and timbre" (p. 3). He did not call them the "elements of music"
but referred to them as "elemental components" (p. 2). Nonetheless, these
elemental components link precisely with four of the most common musical
elements: "Pitch" and "timbre" match exactly, "loudness" links with dynamics,
and "time" links with the time-based elements of rhythm, duration, and tempo.
This usage of the phrase "the elements of music" links more closely with
Webster's New 20th Century Dictionary definition of an element as: "a substance
which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known methods"[91] and
educational institutions' lists of elements generally align with this definition
as well.
Although writers of lists of "rudimentary elements of music" can vary their
lists depending on their personal (or institutional) priorities, the perceptual
elements of music should consist of an established (or proven) list of discrete
elements which can be independently manipulated to achieve an intended musical
effect. It seems at this stage that there is still research to be done in this
area.
A slightly different way of approaching the identification of the elements of
music, is to identify the "elements of sound" as: pitch, duration, loudness,
timbre, sonic texture and spatial location,[92] and then to define the "elements
of music" as: sound, structure, and artistic intent.[92]
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Main article: Sociomusicology
Song Dynasty (960–1279) painting, Night Revels of Han Xizai, showing Chinese
musicians entertaining guests at a party in a 10th-century household
Many ethnographic studies demonstrate that music is a participatory,
community-based activity.[93][94] Music is experienced by individuals in a range
of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert,
forming a music community, which cannot be understood as a function of
individual will or accident; it includes both commercial and non-commercial
participants with a shared set of common values. Musical performances take
different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and
North America, there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as
a "high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" types of music typically
include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era
symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal
concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly in
seats.
Other types of music—including, but not limited to, jazz, blues, soul, and
country—are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the
audience may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering. Until
the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" musical forms was
widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better quality, more
advanced "art music" from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance
halls.
However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived divide
between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this distinction is not
based on the musical value or quality of the different types of music.[citation
needed] Rather, they argued that this distinction was based largely on the
socioeconomics standing or social class of the performers or audience of the
different types of music.[citation needed] For example, whereas the audience for
Classical symphony concerts typically have above-average incomes, the audience
for a rap concert in an inner-city area may have below-average incomes.[citation
needed] Even though the performers, audience, or venue where non-"art" music is
performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is performed,
such as blues, rap, punk, funk, or ska may be very complex and sophisticated.
When composers introduce styles of music that break with convention, there can
be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture.
Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores, serialism,
bebop-era jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica have all been considered
non-music by some critics when they were first introduced.[citation needed] Such
themes are examined in the sociology of music. The sociological study of music,
sometimes called sociomusicology, is often pursued in departments of sociology,
media studies, or music, and is closely related to the field of ethnomusicology.
ROLE OF WOMEN
Main article: Women in music
19th-century composer and pianist Clara Schumann
Women have played a major role in music throughout history, as composers,
songwriters, instrumental performers, singers, conductors, music scholars, music
educators, music critics/music journalists and other musical professions. In the
2010s, while women comprise a significant proportion of popular music and
classical music singers, and a significant proportion of songwriters (many of
them being singer-songwriters), there are few women record producers, rock
critics and rock instrumentalists. Although there have been a huge number of
women composers in classical music, from the medieval period to the present day,
women composers are significantly underrepresented in the commonly performed
classical music repertoire, music history textbooks and music encyclopedias; for
example, in the Concise Oxford History of Music, Clara Schumann is one of the
few female composers who is mentioned.
Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical
music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A 2015 article on
concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of
the soloists with the Orchestre Symphonique de Montreal were men. In 2012, women
still made up just 6% of the top-ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. Women are
less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and
heavy metal, although there have been a number of notable female
instrumentalists and all-female bands. Women are particularly underrepresented
in extreme metal genres.[95] In the 1960s pop-music scene, "[l]ike most aspects
of the...music business, [in the 1960s,] songwriting was a male-dominated field.
Though there were plenty of female singers on the radio, women ...were primarily
seen as consumers:... Singing was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl,
but playing an instrument, writing songs, or producing records simply wasn't
done."[96] Young women "...were not socialized to see themselves as people who
create [music]."[96]
Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music
journalism, music producing, and sound engineering. While women were discouraged
from composing in the 19th century, and there are few women musicologists, women
became involved in music education "...to such a degree that women dominated
[this field] during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th
century."[97]
According to Jessica Duchen, a music writer for London's The Independent, women
musicians in classical music are "...too often judged for their appearances,
rather than their talent" and they face pressure "...to look sexy onstage and in
photos."[98] Duchen states that while "[t]here are women musicians who refuse to
play on their looks,...the ones who do tend to be more materially
successful."[98] According to the UK's Radio 3 editor, Edwina Wolstencroft, the
music industry has long been open to having women in performance or
entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of
authority, such as being the conductor of an orchestra.[99] In popular music,
while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women
behind the audio console acting as music producers, the individuals who direct
and manage the recording process.[100] One of the most recorded artists is Asha
Bhosle, an Indian singer best known as a playback singer in Hindi cinema.[101]
MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY
Further information: Computer music and Music technology
Music production in the 2000s using a digital audio workstation (DAW) with an
electronic keyboard and a multi-monitor set-up
Since the 20th century, live music can be broadcast over the radio, television
or the Internet, or recorded and listened to on a CD player or MP3 player.
In the early 20th century (in the late 1920s), as talking pictures emerged in
the early 20th century, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing
number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work.[102]
During the 1920s, live musical performances by orchestras, pianists, and theater
organists were common at first-run theaters.[103] With the coming of the talking
motion pictures, those featured performances were largely eliminated. The
American Federation of Musicians (AFM) took out newspaper advertisements
protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices.
One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can
labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual
or Emotional Reaction Whatever"[104]
Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a disc
jockey uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo
for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is
prerecorded onto a tape. Some pop bands use recorded backing tracks. Computers
and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument
Digital Interface (MIDI) music. Audiences can also become performers by
participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin centered on a device
that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines
also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers
can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.
The advent of the Internet and widespread high-speed broadband access has
transformed the experience of music, partly through the increased ease of access
to recordings of music via streaming video and vastly increased choice of music
for consumers. Another effect of the Internet arose with online communities and
social media websites like YouTube and Facebook, a social networking service.
These sites make it easier for aspiring singers and amateur bands to distribute
videos of their songs, connect with other musicians, and gain audience interest.
Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of promotional
material. YouTube users, for example, no longer only download and listen to
MP3s, but also actively create their own. According to Don Tapscott and Anthony
D. Williams, in their book Wikinomics, there has been a shift from a traditional
consumer role to what they call a "prosumer" role, a consumer who both creates
content and consumes. Manifestations of this in music include the production of
mashes, remixes, and music videos by fans.[105]
EDUCATION
Further information: Music education
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NON-INSTITUTIONAL
A Suzuki violin recital with students of varying ages
The incorporation of some music or singing training into general education from
preschool to post secondary education is common in North America and Europe.
Involvement in playing and singing music is thought to teach basic skills such
as concentration, counting, listening, and cooperation while also promoting
understanding of language, improving the ability to recall information, and
creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas.[106] In
elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the
recorder, sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music
and traditional music. Some elementary school children also learn about popular
music styles. In religious schools, children sing hymns and other religious
music. In secondary schools (and less commonly in elementary schools), students
may have the opportunity to perform in some types of musical ensembles, such as
choirs (a group of singers), marching bands, concert bands, jazz bands, or
orchestras. In some school systems, music lessons on how to play instruments may
be provided. Some students also take private music lessons after school with a
singing teacher or instrument teacher. Amateur musicians typically learn basic
musical rudiments (e.g., learning about musical notation for musical scales and
rhythms) and beginner- to intermediate-level singing or instrument-playing
techniques.
At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can
receive credit for taking a few music courses, which typically take the form of
an overview course on the history of music, or a music appreciation course that
focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles. In
addition, most North American and European universities have some types of
musical ensembles that students in arts and humanities are able to participate
in, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, or orchestras. The study of
Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe,
such as the Indonesian Institute of the Arts in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, or the
classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as South
Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western universities and colleges are
widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures, such as the
music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan music).
INSTITUTIONAL
Manhattan School of Music professor and professional double bass player Timothy
Cobb teaching a bass lesson in the late 2000s. His bass has a low C extension
with a metal "machine" with buttons for playing the pitches on the extension.
People aiming to become professional musicians, singers, composers, songwriters,
music teachers and practitioners of other music-related professions such as
music history professors, sound engineers, and so on study in specialized
post-secondary programs offered by colleges, universities and music
conservatories. Some institutions that train individuals for careers in music
offer training in a wide range of professions, as is the case with many of the
top U.S. universities, which offer degrees in music performance (including
singing and playing instruments), music history, music theory, music
composition, music education (for individuals aiming to become elementary or
high school music teachers) and, in some cases, conducting. On the other hand,
some small colleges may only offer training in a single profession (e.g., sound
recording).
While most university and conservatory music programs focus on training students
in classical music, there are a number of universities and colleges that train
musicians for careers as jazz or popular music musicians and composers, with
notable U.S. examples including the Manhattan School of Music and the Berklee
College of Music. Two important schools in Canada which offer professional jazz
training are McGill University and Humber College. Individuals aiming at careers
in some types of music, such as heavy metal music, country music or blues are
less likely to become professionals by completing degrees or diplomas in
colleges or universities. Instead, they typically learn about their style of
music by singing or playing in many bands (often beginning in amateur bands,
cover bands and tribute bands), studying recordings available on CD, DVD and the
Internet and working with already-established professionals in their style of
music, either through informal mentoring or regular music lessons. Since the
2000s, the increasing popularity and availability of Internet forums and YouTube
"how-to" videos have enabled many singers and musicians from metal, blues and
similar genres to improve their skills. Many pop, rock and country singers train
informally with vocal coaches and singing teachers.
ACADEMIC STUDY
MUSICOLOGY
Main article: Musicology
Musicology, the academic study of the subject of music, is studied in
universities and music conservatories. The earliest definitions from the 19th
century defined three sub-disciplines of musicology: systematic musicology,
historical musicology, and comparative musicology or ethnomusicology. In
2010-era scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the
discipline into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research in
musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in
the field of psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-Western cultures, and
the cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology. Students can pursue the
undergraduate study of musicology, ethnomusicology, music history, and music
theory through several different types of degrees, including bachelor's degrees,
master's degrees and PhD degrees.
MUSIC THEORY
Main article: Music theory
Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner
outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music,
usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include
mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in
beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the
common practice period, or tonal music. Theory, even of music of the common
practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set theory is the
application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied to atonal music.
Speculative music theory, contrasted with analytic music theory, is devoted to
the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example tuning systems,
generally as preparation for composition.
ZOOMUSICOLOGY
Main article: Zoomusicology
Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical
aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked,
"do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's Musique, mythe, nature, ou les
Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of
Nicolas Ruwet's Langage, musique, poésie (1972) paradigmatic segmentation
analysis, shows that bird songs are organised according to a
repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that
"in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not
musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that
sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely
by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely
human."
ETHNOMUSICOLOGY
Main article: Ethnomusicology
Ethnomusicologist Frances Densmore recording Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief for
the Bureau of American Ethnology (1916)
In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western
civilization's art music, which is known as classical music. The history of
music in non-Western cultures ("world music" or the field of "ethnomusicology")
is also taught in Western universities. This includes the documented classical
traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe, as well
as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures. Popular or folk
styles of music in non-Western countries varied widely from culture to culture,
and from period to period. Different cultures emphasised different instruments,
techniques, singing styles and uses for music. Music has been used for
entertainment, ceremonies, rituals, religious purposes and for practical and
artistic communication. Non-Western music has also been used for propaganda
purposes, as was the case with Chinese opera during the Cultural Revolution.
There is a host of music classifications for non-Western music, many of which
are caught up in the argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of
these is the division between classical music (or "art" music), and popular
music (or commercial music – including non-Western styles of rock, country, and
pop music-related styles). Some genres do not fit neatly into one of these "big
two" classifications, (such as folk music, world music, or jazz-related music).
As world cultures have come into greater global contact, their indigenous
musical styles have often merged with other styles, which produces new styles.
For example, the United States bluegrass style contains elements from
Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and African instrumental and vocal
traditions, which were able to fuse in the United States' multi-ethnic "melting
pot" society. Some types of world music contain a mixture of non-Western
indigenous styles with Western pop music elements. Genres of music are
determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. Some
works, like George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both jazz and
classical music, while Gershwin's Porgy and Bess and Leonard Bernstein's West
Side Story are claimed by both opera and the Broadway musical tradition. Many
current music festivals for non-Western music include bands and singers from a
particular musical genre, such as world music.
Indian music, for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of
music, and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as
internationally (especially since the 1960s). Indian music has mainly three
forms of classical music, Hindustani, Carnatic, and Dhrupad styles. It has also
a large repertoire of styles, which involve only percussion music such as the
talavadya performances famous in South India.
THERAPY
Main article: Music therapy
A music therapist from a "Blues in the Schools" program plays harmonica with a
US Navy sailor at a Naval Therapy Center.
Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which a trained therapist uses
music and all of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and
spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health. In some
instances, the client's needs are addressed directly through music; in others
they are addressed through the relationships that develop between the client and
therapist. Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety
of conditions, including: psychiatric disorders, medical problems, physical
disabilities, sensory impairments, developmental disabilities, substance abuse
issues, communication disorders, interpersonal problems, and aging. It is also
used to improve learning, build self-esteem, reduce stress, support physical
exercise, and facilitate a host of other health-related activities. Music
therapists may encourage clients to sing, play instruments, create songs, or do
other musical activities.
In the 10th century, the philosopher Al-Farabi described how vocal music can
stimulate the feelings and souls of listeners.[107] Music has long been used to
help people deal with their emotions. In the 17th century, the scholar Robert
Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy argued that music and dance were critical in
treating mental illness, especially melancholia.[108] He noted that music has an
"excellent power ...to expel many other diseases" and he called it "a sovereign
remedy against despair and melancholy." He pointed out that in Antiquity, Canus,
a Rhodian fiddler, used music to "make a melancholy man merry, ...a lover more
enamoured, a religious man more devout."[109][110][111] In the Ottoman Empire,
mental illnesses were treated with music.[112] In November 2006, Michael J.
Crawford and his colleagues also found that music therapy helped schizophrenic
patients.[113][114]
SEE ALSO
Main articles: Outline of music and Index of music articles
* Music portal
* Glossary of music terminology
* LGBT music
* Lists of musicians
* List of musicology topics
* Music and emotion
* Music archaeology
* Music history
* Music-specific disorders
REFERENCES
NOTES
1. ^ A now discredited theory held by many medieval thinkers was that 'music'
was descended from the Egyptian word moys, meaning water, thought to connect
to Moses.[11]
2. ^ For the further etymological origins, mousiké derives from the feminine
form of mousikos, which is anything "pertaining to the muses", from the
Ancient Greek word for Muse, Mousa.[9] There is no agreement on the origins
of the word Mousa,[12] though see Muses § Etymology for proposed theories.
3. ^ In the 1800s, the phrases "the elements of music" and "the rudiments of
music" were used interchangeably.[58][59] The elements described in these
documents refer to aspects of music that are needed in order to become a
musician, Recent writers such as Espie Estrella seem to be using the phrase
"elements of music" in a similar manner.[60] A definition which most
accurately reflects this usage is: "the rudimentary principles of an art,
science, etc.: the elements of grammar."[61] The UK's curriculum switch to
the "inter-related dimensions of music" seems to be a move back to using the
rudimentary elements of music.
CITATIONS
1. ^ OED, §1.
2. ^ AHD, §1.
3. ^ Epperson 2022, § para. 1.
4. ^ Mithen 2005, pp. 26–27.
5. ^ Morley 2013, p. 5.
6. ^ Gardner 1983, p. 104.
7. ^ Nettl 2001, §III "3. Music among the arts".
8. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary, § para 2.
9. ^ Jump up to: a b c Online Etymology Dictionary, § para 1.
10. ^ Hoad, T. F., ed. (2003) [1996]. "music". The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of English Etymology. ISBN 978-0-19-283098-2. Archived from the original
on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2022.
11. ^ Jump up to: a b Apel 1969, p. 548.
12. ^ Anderson & Mathiesen 2001, § para 1.
13. ^ Murray 2020, pp. 13–14.
14. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Nettl 2001, §I "1. Etymology".
15. ^ Anderson & Mathiesen 2001, § para 2.
16. ^ Nettl 2001, §II "1. Contemporary Western culture".
17. ^ Jump up to: a b Nettl 2001, §II "2. East Asia".
18. ^ Jump up to: a b Nettl 2001, §II "5. Some African cultures".
19. ^ Nettl 2001, §II "4. India".
20. ^ Nettl 2001, §II "6. Some Amerindian and Oceanian cultures".
21. ^ Nettl 2001, §II "3. Iran and the Middle East".
22. ^ Merker, Morley & Zuidema 2015, § "Introduction".
23. ^ Morley 2013, pp. 2–3.
24. ^ Jump up to: a b Wallin, Merker & Brown 2000, p. 8.
25. ^ Huron 2003, p. 61.
26. ^ Huron 2003, p. 62.
27. ^ Wallin, Merker & Brown 2000, p. 11.
28. ^ Nettl 2001, §8 "On the Origins of Music".
29. ^ Morley 2013, pp. 38–39.
30. ^ Reginald Massey; Jamila Massey (1996). The Music of India. Abhinav
Publications. p. 11. ISBN 978-81-7017-332-8. Archived from the original on
11 January 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
31. ^ Brown, RE (1971). "India's Music". Readings in Ethnomusicology.
32. ^ Wilkinson, Endymion (2000). Chinese history. Harvard University Asia
Center.
33. ^ Music of Ancient Egypt Archived 13 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
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34. ^ "UC 33268". digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 27
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35. ^ Hickmann, Hans (1957). "Un Zikr Dans le Mastaba de Debhen, Guîzah (IVème
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doi:10.2307/834982. JSTOR 834982.
36. ^ Hickmann, Hans (January–March 1960). "Rythme, mètre et mesure de la
musique instrumentale et vocale des anciens Egyptiens". Acta Musicologica.
32 (1): 11–22. doi:10.2307/931818. JSTOR 931818.
37. ^ Stolba, K. Marie (1995). The Development of Western Music: A History
(brief second ed.). Madison: Brown & Benchmark Publishers. p. 2.
38. ^ West, Martin Litchfield (May 1994). "The Babylonian Musical Notation and
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book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
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SOURCES
* Anderson, Warren (2001). "Muses". Grove Music Online. Revised by Thomas J.
Mathiesen. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.19396. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.
(subscription or UK public library membership required)
* Apel, Willi (1969). Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-37501-7.
* Epperson, Gordon (16 June 2022). "Music | Art Form, Styles, Rhythm, &
History". Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
* Gardner, Howard (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02508-4.
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Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852519-6.
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fundamental constraints on theories of the origins of music". Philosophical
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PMID 25646518.
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Language, Mind, and Body. London: Orion Publishing Group.
ISBN 978-1-7802-2258-5.
* Morley, Iain (2013). The Prehistory of Music: Human Evolution, Archaeology,
and the Origins of Musicality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-923408-0.
* Murray, Penelope (2020). "The Mythology of the Muses". In Lynch, Tosca A. C.;
Rocconi, Eleonora (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Greek and Roman Music.
Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Hoboken: Wiley.
ISBN 978-1-119-27547-3.
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Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40476. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.
(subscription or UK public library membership required)
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(subscription required)
FURTHER READING
* Kennedy, Michal; Kennedy, Joyce Bourne (2013) [2012]. Tim Rutherford-Johnson
(ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Music (6th paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957854-2.
* Small, Christopher (1977). Music, Society, Education. John Calder Publishers,
London. ISBN 0-7145-3614-8
* Tymoczko, Dmitri (2011). A Geometry of Music: Harmony and Counterpoint in the
Extended Common Practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-533667-2.
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