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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY

Volume 143, September 2019, Pages 116-125




AFFECT AND COGNITIVE CONTROL: INSIGHTS FROM RESEARCH ON EFFORT MOBILIZATION

Author links open overlay panelNicolas Silvestrini, Guido H.E. Gendolla
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ABSTRACT

We present theory and research on effort mobilization that is relevant for
understanding the role of affect in cognitive control. We posit that cognitive
control and effort are closely related and introduce motivational intensity
theory and supporting empirical evidence mainly based on cardiovascular measures
of effort. Most important, we discuss the role of affect in the context of
effort mobilization and cognitive control from different perspectives. We first
present theories predicting affective influences on effort, namely the
mood-behavior-model and the implicit-affect-primes-effort model, and supporting
empirical evidence. Second, we discuss further implications of the resource
conservation principle highlighting the aversive aspect of effort and review
evidence for the impact of value and its affective component on effort and
cognitive control. Finally, we present a recent integration of the neural
mechanisms underlying both effort and cognitive control. We conclude that
affective processes are necessary and instrumental for both effort mobilization
and cognitive control.


INTRODUCTION

“What is cognitive control without affect?” We understand the topic of this
special issue as an attempt to determine whether cognitive control can exist
without any affective processes, and if it can, what these affect-independent
control processes are. From a traditional cognitivist perspective (e.g.,
Schneider and Shiffrin, 1977; see also Ach, 1935), the answer to the first
question would be “yes”. Applying a computer metaphor and conceptualizing humans
as information processing agents does, at first, not leave much space for
affective processes. Accordingly, cognitive control without affect would still
be cognitive control. However, the reemergence of motivation psychology and the
rise of affective psychology highlighted the importance of affect in human
information processing and action (e.g., Geen, 1995; Sander and Scherer,
2009)—also in psychophysiology (Gendolla, 2017). Nevertheless, several
psychological models have kept with the idea that cognition and emotion are
parts of two relatively independent systems. As a prototypical example, Metcalfe
and Mischel (1999) have proposed that cognitive control is part of a “cold”
system that is related to basic information processing and works in an
“emotionally neutral” way. By contrast, affect is associated with an independent
“hot” system that can, however, interact with the cold system when individuals
try to regulate their behavior. However, other models posit that cognitive and
affective processes are so closely entangled that they are inseparably
interrelated (e.g., Leventhal and Scherer, 1987). In this latter perspective,
cognitive and affective processes might not exist on their own.

The topic of this special issue reminds us of the debate about affect –
cognition primacy between Zajonc and Lazarus in the early 1980s (Lazarus, 1983,
Lazarus, 1984; Zajonc, 1980, Zajonc, 1984). In that discussion it was argued
whether affective processes could exist independently from cognition and whether
cognitive processes precede affective experiences or not. Zajonc posited that
basic affective reactions come first. Lazarus claimed that cognitive processes
are necessary to elicit affective reactions. Leventhal and Scherer (1987) partly
resolved this argument by considering definition issues associated with emotion
and cognition. Accordingly, reflex-like basic affective reactions should be
distinguished from emotions. Cognition and emotion are closely and inseparably
intertwined, with the exception of innate reflex-like affective reactions at the
very beginning of ontogenetic development.

In this article, we also consider definition issues to highlight the role of
affect in cognitive control. According to dual-process models (Norman and
Shallice, 1986; Posner and Snyder, 1975; Shiffrin and Schneider, 1977),
cognitive control is by definition associated with effort, which represents the
mobilization of resources to execute action (Gendolla and Wright, 2009).
Therefore, one can expect research investigating affective impact on cognitive
effort to be relevant for the question of this special issue and we aim to offer
some answers by drawing on research on effort mobilization. As we will discuss
below, effort is closely linked with controlled information processing and
affective processes have systematic effects on effort mobilization and cognitive
control.

In this article, we also try to answer at least two related questions: First,
are affective processes necessary for effort mobilization and intensity? Second,
is there any aspect of effort mobilization that is independent from affective
processes? We begin with a definition and discussing conceptual issues
pertaining to effort. We then introduce motivational intensity theory (Brehm and
Self, 1989), the theoretical framework we and several others have applied to
make predictions about effort mobilization, and supporting empirical evidence
mainly based on cardiovascular measures of effort. Most important, we discuss
the role of affect in the context of effort mobilization and cognitive control
from different perspectives. We first present theories predicting affective
influences on effort, namely the mood-behavior-model (MBM) and the
implicit-affect-primes-effort model (IAPE), and supporting empirical evidence.
Second, we discuss further implications of the resource conservation principle
highlighting the aversive aspect of effort and consequences for cognitive
control. We then review evidence on the impact of value and its affective
component on effort. Finally, we present a recent integration on the neural
correlates and mechanisms underlying effort and cognitive control, which offers
additional insights in the role of affective processes in both effort
mobilization and cognitive control. We finish our discussion with a general
summary and concluding remarks on the topic of this special issue.


SECTION SNIPPETS


EFFORT: DEFINITION AND BASIC CONCEPTUAL ISSUES

As most psychological constructs, effort can be defined, conceptualized, and
assessed in different ways (see Massin, 2017). As we discuss later, this can
lead to theoretical divergences and confusion, making it necessary to clarify
these definition issues at the first place. We define effort as the mobilization
of resources to carry out instrumental behavior (Gendolla and Wright, 2009).
This definition applies to physical as well as cognitive effort and refers to
the intensity aspect of


MOTIVATIONAL INTENSITY THEORY

Motivational intensity theory (Brehm and Self, 1989; Brehm et al., 1983; Brehm,
1975) is grounded in the resource conservation principle (Gibson, 1900)—the idea
that organisms do just the necessary, but not more for attaining their goals.
Drawing further on the idea that effort has the function to cope with obstacles
during goal pursuit, it was postulated that resource mobilization follows a
“difficulty law of motivation” (e.g., Ach, 1935; Hillgruber, 1912). Accordingly,
effort is mobilized


THE ROLE OF AFFECT

The concept of affect is strongly associated with valence, which refers to a
continuum from negative/unpleasant to positive/pleasant aspects of subjective
experiences or events (Frijda and Scherer, 2009). According to Schwarz and Clore
(1996), affective experiences include moods, emotions, as well as cognitive
experiences such as familiarity, boredom, or difficulty, and bodily experiences
such as hunger or pain.

As discussed above, the question whether affect requires cognitive processes was
a


CONCLUSIONS

Summing up, effort research offers, according to our view, interesting insights
for the question of the role of affect in control processes. As discussed in
this article, several lines of research have revealed affective influences on
effortful processes. A large body of evidence has shown that experienced
affective states and their cognitive representations systematically influence
effort mobilization in cognitive tasks. This suggests that affect is highly
relevant information for


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The theorizing and research from our laboratory presented in this article were
supported by grants from the Swiss National Science Foundation awarded to
Nicolas Silvestrini (PBGEP1-131388, PZ00P1-142458/1) and Guido Gendolla
(100011-108144, 100014-122604, 100014-131760, 100014-140251, 100014-162399).




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CITED BY (23)


 * CAN PERSONAL TASK CHOICE SHIELD AGAINST FEAR AND ANGER PRIME EFFECTS ON
   EFFORT? A STUDY ON CARDIAC RESPONSE
   
   2023, Biological Psychology
   Show abstract
   
   This experiment tested whether personal task choice can shield against
   implicit affective influences on sympathetically mediated cardiovascular
   response, reflecting effort. Participants were N = 121 healthy university
   students who completed a moderately difficult memory task with integrated
   briefly flashed and masked fear vs. anger primes. Half of the participants
   believed they could choose between an attention and a memory task, while the
   other half was automatically assigned to the task. Replicating previous
   research, we expected an influence of the affect primes on effort when the
   task was externally assigned. By contrast, when participants were given a
   task choice, we predicted strong action shielding and thus a weak implicit
   affect effect on resource mobilization. As expected, participants in the
   assigned task condition showed stronger cardiac pre-ejection period
   reactivity when exposed to fear primes than when processing anger primes.
   Importantly, this affect prime effect disappeared when participants could
   ostensibly choose the task. These findings add to other recent evidence for
   action shielding by personal task choice and importantly extend this effect
   to implicit affective influences on cardiac reactivity during task
   performance.


 * HOW POSITIVE AFFECT BUFFERS STRESS RESPONSES
   
   2021, Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences
   Citation Excerpt :
   
   A recent review of this literature shows that although there are several
   unpublished reports with null-findings, the majority of published studies so
   far have provided at least partial support for this effect [19]. In addition,
   similar positive mood effects on cardiovascular responses related to
   cognitive effort are well documented [20]. However, cardiac recovery from
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   this limited time window, such as those occurring at the hormonal system
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   Show abstract
   
   Positive affect can help to dampen the impact of adverse life events,
   facilitating healthy cognitive and emotional functioning after stress. The
   present review highlights recent findings on the stress buffering effects of
   these pleasant feeling states, focusing on studies utilizing acute and
   chronic stress in daily life, stress manipulations in the lab, and
   examinations of affective and cognitive adaptations during tasks involving
   difficult or risky events. We review novel findings that neural reward
   systems dampen activity of brain areas involved in signalling stress and
   highlight the role of endogenous opioids and other neurochemicals in this
   buffering effect. We show that across different timescales and physiological
   systems, positive affect buffers against accumulating stress responses in the
   body and brain.


 * A COMPUTATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE ROLES OF AFFECT IN COGNITIVE CONTROL
   
   2020, International Journal of Psychophysiology
   Citation Excerpt :
   
   However, once the task difficulty is high enough so that success on the task
   is no longer expected, an agent may choose to disengage from the task.
   Support for this prediction comes from physiological studies which use the
   responses of the cardiovascular system as a measure of effort mobilization
   (Wright, 1996; Silvestrini and Gendolla, 2019). In this way there is a
   convergence of motivation theory and physiological studies on one side, and
   the neurocomputational accounts of effort investment (Manohar et al., 2015;
   Shenhav et al., 2013; Verguts et al., 2015) on the other.
   
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   Previous work has demonstrated that cognitive control can be influenced by
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   interactions occur remain debated, in part because they have yet to be
   formalized in a way that allows experimenters to test quantitative
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   leveraged a recent model that determines cognitive control allocation by
   weighing potential costs and benefits in order to determine the overall
   Expected Value of Control (EVC). We simulated potential accounts of how
   integral and incidental affect might influence this valuation process,
   including whether incidental positive affect influences how difficult one
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   marginal utility of succeeding at the task. We find that each of these
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 * PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS INFLUENCES TEMPORAL ACCURACY
   
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 * THE IMPACT OF PAIN ON SUBSEQUENT EFFORT AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE
   
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   Cognitive assessments in oncology depend on the research question, study
   design, cognitive domains, patients’ characteristics, psychometric properties
   of the tests, and whether the tests are supervised or not by a
   neuropsychologist. Batteries of electronic tests can be proposed, but several
   of them are characterized by weak psychometric developments. In order to
   improve the comprehension on the impact of cancer treatments on cognition,
   new animal models are in development, and would in the future include
   non-human primate models.
   
   By bringing together the skills and practices of oncologists, neurologists,
   neuropsychologists, neuroscientists, we propose a series of specific tools
   and tests that accompany the cognitive management of non-CNS cancer patients.

 * Research article
   
   
   COMORBID HIV INFECTION AND ALCOHOL USE DISORDERS: CONVERGING GLUTAMATERGIC
   AND DOPAMINERGIC MECHANISMS UNDERLYING NEUROCOGNITIVE DYSFUNCTION
   
   Brain Research, Volume 1723, 2019, Article 146390
   Show abstract
   
   Alcohol use disorders (AUDs) are highly comorbid with human immunodeficiency
   virus (HIV) infection, occurring at nearly twice the rate in HIV positive
   individuals as in the general population. Individuals with HIV who consume
   alcohol show worse long-term prognoses and may be at elevated risk for the
   development of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. The direction of this
   relationship is unclear, and likely multifactorial. Chronic alcohol exposure
   and HIV infection independently promote cognitive dysfunction and further may
   interact to exacerbate neurocognitive deficits through effects on common
   targets, including corticostriatal glutamate and dopamine neurotransmission.
   Additionally, drug and alcohol use is likely to reduce treatment adherence,
   potentially resulting in accelerated disease progression and subsequent
   neurocognitive impairment. The development of neurocognitive impairments may
   further reduce cognitive control over behavior, resulting in escalating
   alcohol use. This review will examine the complex relationship between HIV
   infection and alcohol use, highlighting impacts on dopamine and glutamate
   systems by which alcohol use and HIV act independently and in tandem to alter
   corticostriatal circuit structure and function to dysregulate cognitive
   function.


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